GIFT  OF 
Prof. E.J. tticksnn 


THE  DOMESTIC  SHEEP 

ITS  CULTURE  AND  GENERAL 
MANAGEMENT. 


BY  HENRY  STEWART, 

AUTHOR  OF 

The  Shepherd's  Manual;  The  Dairyman's  Manual;  Irrigation 

for  the  Farm ;  Garden  and  Orchard ;  The 

Culture  of  Farm  Crops. 


PROFUSELY  ILLUSTRATED. 


"The  Sheep  is  the  most  profitablest 
animal  a  man  can  have." — FITZHERBERT. 


CHICAGO: 

AMERICAN  SHEEP  BREEDER  PRESS. 
1898. 


MAIN 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1898,  by  the 

AMERICAN  SHEEP  RREEDER  TRESS, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


PREFACE. 


Since  the  publication  of  the  Shepherds'  Manual  by  the 
present  author  a  vast  increase  has  occurred  in  the  estima- 
tion in  which  the  sheep  has  been  held  by  America!!  farm- 
ers, and  indeed  this  great  agricultural  interest  has  ad- 
vanced by  strides  everywhere  all  over  the  civilized  world 
where  agriculture  has  reached  its  full  development.  And 
while  the  work  mentioned  is  still  in  print  and  circulation, 
and  fills  a  useful  place  in  the  special  literature  of  the  farm, 
yet  circumstances  have  occurred  which  make  it  desirable 
that  some  newer  work  of  wider  adaptation  to  the  great  in- 
terest involved  should  be  undertaken  for  the  information 
of  all  concerned  in  the  rearing  of  sheep  and  for  the  en- 
couragement of  this  part  of  farm  industry. 

This  present  work  is  therefore  offered  to  shepherds  in 
the  hope  that  it  may  be  found  useful  and  effective  in  ad- 
vancing this-  important  interest,  and  in  assisting  to  more 
fully  develop  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  sheep. 

HENRY  STEWART. 


526693 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

PREFACE i Hi 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OB-  THE  SHEEP 7-21 

Antiquity  of  the  Sheep  Husbandry — Lessons  to  be 
Learned  from  Ancient  Shepherds— The  Anatomy  of  the 
Sheep :  Its  Mouth  and  Teeth ;  Its  Stomach ;  Its  Intes- 
tines and  Their  Functions. 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  VARIETIES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 22-102 

The  American  Merino— Points  of  Excellence  in  a 
Merino— Sub-Breeds  of  the  Merino:  The  Dickinson, 
The  Standard  Delaine,  The  National  Delaine,  The  Im- 
proved Delaine,  The  Black  Top,  The  Improved  Black 
Top— The  Saxony  Merino— The  Rambouillet  Merino— 
The  French  Breeds— The  British  Breeds— Short- wools : 
The  Southdown,  Shropshire,  Hampshire,  Suffolk,  Ox- 
ford, Dorset.  Long-wools :  The  Lincoln,  Cotswold,  Lei- 
cester, Romney  Marsh  and  Wensleydale.  Mountain 
Breeds :  The  Cheviot,  Black-Faced  Highland,  Welsh- 
Other  Varieties  of  Sheep :  The  Tunis,  etc. 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE  SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  BREEDING 103-126 

Breeding  an  Art  Based  on  Strictly  Scientific  Prin- 
ciples— What  Is  a  Breed? — Breeding  by  Ancient  Shep- 
herds—Heredity a  Special  Function— Selection  a  Special 
Feature— Climatic  Influences— Cross  Breeding— Influ- 
ence of  Soils  on  Health  of  Sheep/ 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  FEEDING 12T  200 

Feeding  the  Most  Important  Part  of  Agriculture- 
Character  of  Food  and  Composition  of  Animal — The 
Nutritive  Ratio— Feeding  for  Lambs— Table  of  Nutri- 
tive Value  of  Foods— Rules  for  Winter  Feeding— Feed- 
ing Crops  for  Sheep— Feeding  Roots— Ensilage— Filling 
the  Silo— Feeding  Lambs— Feeding  Lambs  in  a  Corn 
Field — Rearing  House  Lambs — Feeding  Grass  Lambs — 
Experiments  in  Feeding  Lambs,  and  Possible  Gain  in 
a  Year's  Growth— Winter  Feeding  for  Wool— Scientific 
Experiments  in  Feeding  Lambs  for  Market. 

(4) 


CONTENTS.  V 

CHAPTER  V. 

BARNS  AND  STABLES 201-225 

Best  Arrangement  of  Buildings— Octagonal,  Square 
and  Round  Barns— Shed  lor  Soiling  Sheep,  with  Floor 
Plan— Handling  Sheep— A  Texas  Catch  Pen  for  Sorting 
and  Dipping— A  Manitoba  Sheep  House— J.  E.  Wing's 
Barn— Mr.  Vestal's  Barn— Shepherd  Dogs. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

WOOL:  ITS  HISTORY,  USES,  ETC 226-291 

On  the  Difference  in  Wools — Wool  Growing  a  Science 
—The  Nature  of  Wool— Cross  Breeding  for  Wool— The 
Culture  of  Wool — Uniformity  in  Wool — Washing  Sheep 
—Sheep  Dips  and  Dipping  — Shearing:  By  Machine 
and  Hand— Sorting  Wool— Pulled  Wool— Care  of  the 
Sheared  Sheep. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

MINOR  BRITISH  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 292-304 

The  Herdwick— The  Ryeland— The  New  Ryeland— 
The  Lonk— The  Roscommon— The  Radnor— The  Sheep 
of  North  Wales — The  Exmoor — The  Limestone  or  Crag 
Sheep— The  Devon  Long- wool— The  Dartmoor— The 
Glamorganshire  Sheep— The  Clun  Forest  Sheep. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

DISEASES  OF  SHEEP  :    PREVENTION  AND  TREATMENT 305-368 

Parturition  of  the  Sheep:  Retention  of  the  After- 
Birth,  Bleeding  from  and  Inversion  of  the  Womb,  In- 
flammation of  the  Vagina,  Garget,  Abortion— Internal 
Parasites :  Throat  Thread  Worms  (Anemia) ;  Tape 
Worms  (Tenia  Marginata,  Tenia  Coenurus,  Tenia 
Fimbriata,  Tenia  Expansa) ;  Stomach  Round  Worms 
(Strongylus  Contortus) ;  Intestinal  Round  Worms ;  Nod- 
ular Disease  of  the  Intestines  (CEsophagostoma  Colum- 
bianum);  Fluke  Disease;  The  Sheep  Bot-Fly  (CEstrus 
Ovis)  —  Albuminaria — Anthrax — Anasarca — Bronchitis 
— Carbuncular  Erysipelas  — Catarrh  —  Colic — Diarrhea 
— Foot  Rot — Impaction  of  the  Stomach — Inflammation 
of  the  Brain — Inflammation  of  the  Spinal  Cord  (Mye- 
letis)— Pleurisy— Inflammation  of  the  Udder  (Mammitis) 
— Inflammation  of  the  Lungs  (Pneumonia) — Inflamma- 
tion of  the  Skin  (Herpes) — Parturition  Fever  in  Ewes — 
Poisoning — Porcupine  Grass — Red  Water — Redness  of 
the  Eyes — Small  Pox  of  Sheep — Retention  of  the  Dung 
in  Lambs — Inflammation  and  Castration  of  Testicles — 
External  Parasites:  The  Scab,  The  Maggot  The  Louse, 
The  Tick. 


K  - 

3  I 

:*  S 

PQ  ^3 

S  I 


THE  DOMESTIC  SHEEP; 


ITS  CULTURE  AND  GENERAL  MANAGEMENT. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  THE   SHEEP. 

It  is  not  only  interesting,  but  exceedingly  useful  practi- 
cally, to  know  as  much  as  possible  of  the  origin  and  general 
history  of  the  domestic  animals  which  have— during,  we 
know  not  how  many  centuries — been  brought  under  the 
dominion  of  mankind,  and  have  gradually  been  domesticated, 
changed  by  this  culture,  and  made  subservient  to  the  profit 
of  the  farmer  and  the  uncountable  advantage  of  mankind. 

There  are  several  different  races  of  the  original  wild 
sheep,  and  as  it  is  certain  that  some  of  these  original  races 
have  become  the  progenitors  of  our  domestic  sheep  it  is 
interesting  to  study  the  peculiarities  of  these  races,  and  so 
learn  as  much  as  may  be  of  the  true  origin  of  our  modern 
sheep. 

This  is  by  no  means  as  ancient  as  might  be  supposed. 
Unlike  the  horse  or  the  ox  whose  origin  may  be  traced  back 
through  the  early  ages  of  the  history  of  the  world,  long 
before  mankind  tame  into  existence,  our  sheep  seems  to 
have  been  almost  co-existent  with  the  first  appearance  of 
man.  and  may  quite  possibly  have  been  the  survival  of  the 
domestication,  and  improvement  thereby,  of  one  of  the 
original  breeds  of  the  wild  sheep. 

Of  these  there  are  several,  but  there  is  no  evidence  in 
support  of  the  belief  that  any  one  in  particular  has  been  so 
domesticated  and  changed  by  special  breeding,  except  in  re- 
gard to  two  of  the  ancient  wild  races  referred  to.  These 
are  the  Argali  of  Southern  and  Central  Asia,  and  the  Mus- 
mon  of  Southern  Europe. 

It  is  quite  probable  that  both  of  these  original  races  have 


8  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP 

an  ancient  relationship  to  the  sheep,  and  that  the  latter  is 
the  original  parent  of  our  European  race,  while  the  races 
at  present  existing1  in  Asia  have  descended  from  the  former. 
As  we  have  to  do  with  the  sheep  of  Europe,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  confine  ourselves  simply  to  this  European  wild  sheep, 
and  note  its  resemblance  to  the  first  domesticated  breed  of 
modern  sheep,  the  Merino. 


MUSMON  OF  EUROPE. 

For  the  first  record  of  sheep  we  have  is  of  this  tiiia 
wooled  variety,  which  was  most  carefully  cultivated  by  the 
ancient  Romans  who  made  the  fine  and  costly  garments, 
even  the  imperial  robes  dyed  in  the  costly  Tyrian  purple, 
of  the  wool  of  the  ancient  Merino  of  Spain,  which  is  the 
progenitor  of  the  Merino  of  the  present  time. 


NATURAL  HISTORY  9 

The  illustration  of  the  Musmon,  given  here,  will  go  to 
show  that  this  belief  is  well  founded  and  that  all  our  modern 
breeds  have  descended  from  this  first  parent,  which  still 
exists  in  the  islands  of  Crete  and  Cyprus,  and  the  mountains 
of  Greece,  as  well  as  in  Corsica  and  Sardinia.  It  formerly 
abounded  in  Spain,  and  it  is  from  these  very  localities  that 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Home  procured  their  choicest 
fleeces. 

It  is  also  on  record  by  some  of  the  ancient  Roman  writers, 
and  by  that  ancient  naturalist  Pliny,  that  the  Musmon  was 
used  to  cross  on  the  ancient  sheep,  bred  by  the  Romans  for 
the  sake  of  its  fleece,  and  that  the  produce  of  the  cross  was 
fertile,  But  however  it  may  have  boon,  this  we  know  on 


ARGALI  OF  ASIA. 

the  authority  of  the  most  ancient  records,  tnat  of  the  history 
of  mankind  given  in  the  Scriptures,  viz:  that  while  the  first 
man,  or  we  may  think  the  first  distinct  race  of  men,  were 
cultivators  of  the  ground,  the  second  were  keepers  of  sheep. 
In  fact  the  sheep  unquestionably  was  the  first  domesticated 
animal,  and  not  so  much  for  its  flesh,  although  we  soon  find 
that  this  was  a  choice  article  of  food,  but  for  its  fleece.  In 
fact  we  find  in  the  most  ancient  remains  of  the  earliest 
human  races,  that  wool  was  used  for  clothing,  first  by  the 
use  of  .the  skins  of  the  sheep,  and  in  time  that  it  was  spun 
and  woven  into  cloth.  And  during  all  the  earliest  history  of 
mankind  to  the  present,  we  find  that  the  sheep  has  been 
accounted,  at  least,  an  equal  part  of  the  wealth  of  mankind 
with  all  other  animals  or  possessions.  Moreover  we  are 
forced  to  conclude,  as  the  result  of  a  study  of  history,  that 
the  ancient  shepherds  who  were  wanderers,  alternately  in- 


10  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

habiting  the  mountains  and  the  plains,  following  their  flocks 
wherever  they  strayed,  and  taking  possession  of  the  best 
lauds  they  met  with  by  force  of  their  numbers  and  good 
fighting  qualities,  derived  doubtless  from  their  early  youth- 
ful combats  with  the  savage  beasts  of  prey  from  whose 
attacks  they  successfully  protected  their  flocks.  And  the 
Merino  has  been,  and  still  is,  from  that  long  bygone  time, 
a  wandering  sheep;  thriving  by  clkmge  of  pasture,  if  only 
from  one  small  field  to  another;  for  this  change,  slight  as  at 
is,  seems  to  satisfy  its  desire  for  fresh  fields  and  pastures 
new. 

At  that  early  age  the  flock  supplied  the  owners  with  food 
and  raiment,  and  notliiug  more  was  wanted  to  fully  fill 
all  the  needs  of  the  early  races  of  mankind.  Thus  the  first 
men  became  shepherds,  by  the  mere  force  of  circumstances; 
and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  our  own  shepherds  of  the 
West  are  following  in  the  footsteps  of  the  ancient  patriarch?, 
and  still  perpetuating  the  habits  and  industries  of  the  ear- 
liest people  of  the  human  race.  And  if  this  is  so  it  seems 
to  be  an  unavoidable  result  of  the  necessary  relation  of  the 
sheep  to  the  human  race,  that  the  flock,  under  whatever 
conditions  both  may  exist,  must  always  be  a  profitable  pos- 
session of  mankind,  in  spite  of  all  the  mistakes  made  by 
politicians  and  political  economists,  and  under  whatever 
changes  in  our  civilization  may  occur  in  the  dim  future.  And 
that  old  saying  of  one  of  the  oldest  writers  on  practical  farm 
economy,  quoted  at  the  title  page,  will  remain  true,  as  an  en- 
couragement for  the  shepherd,  as  long  as  the  human  race 
may  survive. 

While  it  might  be  interesting  to  follow  out  this  subject 
of  the  natural  history  of  the  sheep,  and  give  somg  account 
of  the  many  varieties  now  existing,  we  propose  to  confine 
1his  work  to  its  practical  purpose  entirely,  leaving  those 
who  rnaj  feel  interested  beyond  this  limit  to  study  the  sub- 
ject in  the  works  of  the  special  naturalists. 

But  it  is  worthy  of  note  to  the  intelligent  shepherd,  as 
closely  related  to  his  industry  and  the  improvement  of  his 
flocks,  that  all  the  different  breeds  of  sheep  now  existing 
must  have  sprung  from  this  single  source,  and  have  been 
produced  by  the  art  of  the  breeders  who  have  given  their 
attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  natural  flock.  This  im- 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  11 

provenient,  however,  is  by  110  means  a  modern  thing.  It  was 
in  full  progress  at  the  time  of  the  patriarch  Jacob,  who  by  a 
trick,  as  it  may  be  termed,  worthy  of  the  most  experienced 
breeder  of  modern  times,  got  from  his  father-in-law  the  best 
of  the  lambs  for  his  share  of  the  Hocks  which  he  tended 
finder  a  sort  of  contract,  quite  common  uow-a-days,  that  is, 
for  a  share  of  the  produce.  How  long  before  that  ancient 
time  the  modern  rules  of  breeding  were  then  in  practice  wo 
have  no  means  of  knowing,  but  it  may  be  well  believed  that 
this  art  of  improvement  had  been  long  in  vogue,  and  was 
the  basis  of  the  high  condition  of  the  flocks  at  that  time. 

The  high  condition  of  intelligence  among  the  leaders  of 
society  ev-en  in  the  days  of  Moses,  and  the  consideration 
given  to  the  flocks  as  property,  together  with  the  large  num- 
bers of  sheep  owned  by  noted  individuals  as  a  mere  matter 
of  course,  all  goes  to  show  that  the  art  of  the  shepljerd  was 
even  in  those  early  times  very  highly  cultivated  and  most 
highly  considered.  In  fact,  as  the  sheep  was  one  of  the 
most  important  sources  of  wealth,  we  may  be  sure  the  flocks 
weie  cultivated  as  carefully  as  the  high  degree  of  intelli- 
gence then  would  lead  us  to  think.  And  this  common  knowl- 
edge of  course  became  a  matter  of  history,  repeated  and 
handed  down  by  the  ancient  writers  for  even  our  informa- 
tion. 

And  the  arts  of  improving  sheep  by  the  best  breeding,  as 
then  practiced,  may  be  taken  as  a  guide  for  us  at  this  time. 
Here  is  what  Virgil — that  accomplished  Roman  farmer  and 
breeder — says  in  the  third  book  of  his  Georgics:  "There  will 
be  always  those  in  every  flock  whose  forms  you  will  wish 
to  change,  therefore  always  repair  them,  and  choose  out, 
from  the  flock  the  best  offspring  yearly.  Then  after  the 
birth,  the  care  is  transferred  to  the  lambs,  and  they  brand 
them  with  the  marks  and  the  names  of  the  race,  which  they 
may  wish  ta  keep  for  breed  for  preserving  the  flock.  And  if  wool 
be  your  care,  select  white  flocks,  with  soft  fleeces.  And  if, 
although  the  ram  himself  be  white,  reject  him  which  has  a 
black  tongue  under  his  moist  palate;  lest  he  may  stain  the 
fleeces  of  the  lambs  with  black  spots,  and  look  about  for 
21  not  her  in  the  full  field." 

Nor  were  the  ancient  shepherds  at  all  behind  the  most 
enthusiastic  of  the  modern  ones  in  paying  enormous 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


prices  for  the  desired  animals  chosen  for  the  improvement 
of  their  sheep.  For  a  shepherd  of  the  time  of  the  Roman 
Caesar  Tiberius  is  recorded  as  giving  a  sum  equivalent  to 
live  hundred  dollars  for  a  ram  of  a  noted  breed,  chosen  from 
out-.?  ol  the  most  noted  flocks  in  the  world  at  that  time. 

Arid  in  more  modern  times  we  find  that  the  kings  and 
emperors  thought  a  present  of  a  tine  ram  and  a  bunch  of 


fx 


AFRICAN  SHEEP. 

ewes  from  their  high  bred  flocks,  a  worthy  present  to  be 
mack1  or  received.  It  was  in  this  way  that  some  of  the  first 
of  the  Cotswold  breed  were  brought  into  England  as  a  gift 
from  the  Spanish  emperor  to  the  English  king  several  cen- 
turies ago.  Indeed  we  may  thank  the  kings  of  England 
very  cordially  for  their  enterprise  in  cultivating  tint*  breeding 
sheep  from  the  finest,  by  procuring  the  specimens  from  every 
possible  source,  and  by  the  strictest  laws  protecting  the 
native  flocks  from  deterioration. 

Moreover  we  may  take  a  hint  and  lesson  from  this  period 
of  the  history  of  the  British  sheep.  For  not  only  were  the 
sheep  protected  in  the  strictest  manner,  but  so  was  the  trade 
in  wool.  Every  art  of  the  economist  was  invoked  for  the 
protection  of  the  woolen  manufacture  in  England.  It 
was  a  felony,  punishable  by  death,  to  export  a  sheep,  and 
the  introduction  of  foreign  woolen  goods  was  entirely  for- 
bidden. At  the  same  time  everv  skilled  artisan  who  was 


ANATOMY.  13 

expert  in  manufacturing  woolen  goods  found  a  cordial  wel- 
come in  England.  In  addition  to  the  severest  and  most 
strictly  enforced  laws  for  the  protection  of  the  wool  product 
and  manufacture,  the  immigration  of  foreign  experts  in  the 
woolen  manufacture  was  encouraged  until  at  last,  after  cen- 
turies of  such  protective  culture,  England  monopolized  the 
Avoolen  manufacturing  business  of  the  world.  It  is  one  of 
the  sad  examples  of  unwise  liberality  on  the  part  of 
some  of  our  statesmen  that  these  lessons,  taken  from  such 
a  conspicuous  example  of  history,  should  be  disregarded  and 
—as  most  truly  said  by  the  ancient  writer  quoted  on  the 
Title  page— ''the  most  profitable  animal  a  man  can  have'' 
should  be  sacrificed  to  the  mistaken  policy  of  admitting 
free  of  import  duty  the  products  of  countries  whose  trade 
has  been  built  up  and  brought  to  a  full  growth  by  the  most 
severely  protective  laws  known  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
Surely  it  would  seem  that  we  should  follow  this  most  strik- 
ing example  of  the  building  up  of  trade  to  a  condition  of  self- 
support  by  centuries  of  favorable  legislative  protection.  This 
is  a  matter  the  American  shepherd  should  study  well  for  his 
guidance. 

THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  SHEEP. 
None  of  our  domestic  animals  can  be  managed  success- 
fully without  an  accurate  knowledge  of  its  anatomy,  and  of 
the  special  functions  of  its  parts.  The  anatomy  or  physical 
structure  of  any  animal  controls  its  constitution,  that,  is  to 
say,  its  subjection  to  good  or  evil  results  in  its  living  and 
general  management;  for  while  this  word  in  its  full  sense 
means  the  formation  and  general  disposition  of  any  organ- 
ized thing,  in  the  common  sense,  as  applied  to  animals,  it 
means  as  well  the  principles  or  general  laws  by  which  its 
successful  existence  is  secured;  its  susceptibility  to  good  or 
evil. by  the  conditions  of  its  existence  or  management;  its 
ability  to  resist,  misfortunes,  and  its  prosperity  under  the 
skillful  management  of  its  intelligent  keeper.  The  constitu- 
tion of  the  domestic  sheep  in  this  regard  is  especially  one  to 
be  well  studied  by  the  shepherd,  for  the  due  preservation 
against  these  accidents  and  common  occurrences  by  which 
it  suffers  in  a  greater  degree  than  any  other  of  our  domestic 
animals. 

The  sheep  belongs  to  that  large  family  of  quadrupeds 


14  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

known  as  the  Iluminautia,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  all 
ruminating  animals,  having  four  stomachs,  cloven  hoofs,  anil 
incisors  only  on  the  lower  jaw,  the  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw 
being  wanting,  and  replaced  by  a  hard,  tough  pad  against 
which  the  lower  teeth  impinge  when  the  animal  is  pasturing, 
thus  severing  the  herbage. 

Its  family  is  known  as  Ovis,  and  is  peculiar  on  account 
of  having  no  tear  pits,  but  instead  a  number  of  small  fol- 
licles or  bags  from  which  is  secreted  an  oily  matter  by 
which  the  movements  of  the  eye  in  its  socket  and  also  of  the 
eyelids  are  facilitated. 

The  organs  of  nutrition  are  the  most  important  pad: 
of  the  structure  of  this  animal.  They  consist  first  of: 

The  mouth  and  teeth.  The  mouth  extends  from  the  lips 
to  the  gullet,  which  is  the  entrance  to  the  alimentary  canal. 
The  sheep,  like  the  ox,  has  a  set  of  deciduous  or  milk  teeth, 
which  in  course  of  time  are  shed  and  replaced  by  a  new 
and  permanent  set.  It  has  no  canine  teeth,  otherwise  known 
as  dog  teeth.  There  is  a  considerable  space  of  the  jaw  that 
is  destitute  of  teeth,  that  is,  between  the  front  or  incisor 
teeth  and  the  molars  or  grinders.  There  are  thirty-two  teeth 
in  all,  the  same  number  as  in  the  ox  tribe.  In  the  lower  jaw- 
there  are  eight  incisors  or  cutting  teeth.  It  is  curious  that 
this  is  the  precise  number  existing  in  mankind,  but  the 
whole  number  is  placed  on  the  lower  jaw  of  the  sheep,  and 
in  man  they  are  divided  between  the  upper  and  lower  jaws. 
The  sheep  has  twenty-four  grinders  or  back  teeth,  wrhich  is 
four  more  than  mankind  possess;  but  the  whole  number  of 
teeth  in  the  sheep  is  the  same  as  in  man. 

The  number  and  condition  of  the  sheep's  teeth  are  an 
easy  indication  of  its  age.  There  are  twenty  deciduous 
teeth,  the  first  of  which  appear  before  or  soon  after  birth. 
These  consist  of  the  two  central  incisors,  and  three  of  the 
molars  or  double  teeth.  The  whole  of  the  incisors  appear  at 
the  age  of  two  or  three  weeks.  The  first  molars  appear  be- 
fore or  soon  after  birth,  three  on  each  side.  The  last  two 
incisors,  one  on  each  side,  appear  at  six  to  nine  months 
after  birth.  This  completes  the  set  of  front  teeth.  The  com- 
plete set  of  molars  do  not  appear  until  the  sheep  is  in  its 
fifth  year,  when  the  last  one  appears.  The  following  table 
will  be  a  guide  to  the  process  of  dentition. 


ANATOMY. 


16 


The  figures  here  given  show  the  appearance  of  the  mid- 
dle pair  of  the  front  teeth  at  the  age  of  IVa  years,  at  which 
age  the  English  courts  have  decided  that  the  lamb  becomes 
a  sheep. 

TABLE  OF  DENTITION  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

ERUPTION.  REPLACEMENT. 

FRONT  TEETH  OR  INCISORS. 
Before  or  soon  after  birth  ......................  1%,  years 

The  same  .......................................  2yz 

14  days  ........................  :  .................  31/2 

2  to  3  weeks  .....................................  4*4 

MOLAR  OR  DOUBLE  TEETH. 
Before  or  a  few  days  after  birth  ...............  \yz 

The  same  .......................................  2yz 

The  same  .......................................  3% 

6  to  9  months.    2y2  years.    4  to  5  years. 

After  the  fifth  year  a  sheep  is 
known  as  to  its  age  by  the  full 
mouth,  and  as  the  age  increases  by 
the  wearing  of  the  teeth.  But  this 
is  not  altogether  a  sure  guide,  for 
a  flock  pasturing  on  a  poor  pasture 
or  sendy  soil  will  so  quickly  wear 
down  its  cutting  teeth  that  they  will 
appear  to  be  so  blunt  as  to  indicate 
a  much  greater  age.  This  is  to  be 
taken  into  account,  and  the  general 
appearance,  as  will  be  described 
hereafter,  in  other  respects  must  all 
be  taken  into  account.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  of  much  account  prac- 
tically. for  except  it  be  some  favor- 
ite and  prolific  ewe,  it  is  rarely  that 
a  sheep  is  kept  so  long  that  its  age 
is  any  reason  for  despising  it.  It  is 
well,  however,  that  the  shepherd 
and  especially  purchasers  of  sheep 
should  be  able  to  ascertain  the  age 
up  to  the  point,  of  maturity.  The 
author  has  kept  some  ewes  until  the 
age  of  thirteen  years,  having  twins 
every  year  after  the  second,  and 
never  found  any  indication  of  in- 
ability to  feed  as  well  as  a  young 
sheep.  What  the  full  age  of  a 


16  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

sheep  may  be  has  never  been  accurately  determined  by  any 
authoritative  evidence,  but  it  is  very  probable  that  if  well 
cared  for  a  sheep  may  be  kept  with  profit  until  twenty  years 
old,  and  the  mutton  even  then  may  be  as  tender  and  good  or 
better  than  a  four  year  old  sheep  that  has  been  ill  cared  for. 

The  lips  of  the  sheep  are  so  peculiar  as  to  deserve  men- 
tion. They  are  extremely  mobile,  thin,  and  take  an  active 
part  in  the  gathering  of  the  food.  The  upper  lip  does  not 
show  any  mullle,  which  is  the  broad  patch  seen  in  the  ox, 
and  which  is  furnished  with  active  excretory  apparatus, 
seen  at  times  by  the  conspicuous  drops  of  perspiration  ex- 
uded by  it  in  warm  weather.  This  is  absent  in  the  sheep, 
and  the  upper  lip  is  thin  and  divided  by  a  fissure  so  that 
each  half  of  the  lip  may  be  moved  independently  of  the 
other. 

The  teeth  are  really  a  part  of  the  digestive  system  as 
they  grind  the  food  along  with  the  secretion  of  the  glands 
of  the  mouth,  and  which  are  known  as  the  salivary  glands. 
These  are  placed  within  the  lips,  under  the  tongue,  and  along 
the  jaws.  They  secrete  apeculiar  fluid  which  has  the  effect, 
of  changing  the  starch  of  the  food  into  sugar,  as  well  as 
aiding  in  the  digestion  of  it  in  the  stomach.  In  all  the  rumi- 
nants these  glands  are  large  and  exude  a  copious  amount 
of  saliva,  especially  during  the  act  of  rumination,  by  which 
the  food,  having  been  coarsely  ground  at  the  first,  is 
macerated  in  the  first  stomach  and  then  regurgitated  to  the 
mouth  where  it  is  further  ground  at  pleasure  and  then 
passes  on  to  the  second  and  third  stomachs  where  it  is  again 
ground  and  macerated  between  the  folds  of  the  manyplies, 
after  which  it  goes  to  the  true  digestive  stomach,  the  fourth 
compartment,  and  having  been  digested  there  it  is  finally 
disposed  of  in  the  intestines. 

THE  SHEEP'S  STOMACH. 

The  changes  which  the  food  of  all  the  ruminating  ani- 
mals undergoes  are  mostly  all  accomplished  after  it  has 
been  swallowed,  and  has  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  the 
first  and  second  stomachs.  After  this  preparation  the  food 
is  formed  by  a  peculiar  moulding  apparatus  into  long  pellets, 
which  are  forced  back  into  the  mouth  and  are  there  sub- 
jected to  the  solvent  influence  of  the  saliva,  copiously  se- 


ANATOMY.  17 

creted  by  the  glands  of  the  mouth.  This  is  the  act  of  rumi- 
nation. It  is  during  this  process  that  the  saliva  is  mostly 
secreted,  for  very  little  of  it  is  concerned  in  the  first  chewing 
of  the  food.  But  the  flow  of  it  during  mastication  in  the 
ruminating  process  is  very  copious,  and  so  much  so  as  to 
form  with  the  finely  ground  food  a  mere  semi-liquid,  thus 
aiding  in  the  solution  of  the  nutritive  matter  contained  in 
the  food.  It  has  been  thought  that  this  curious  process 
has  been  designed  especially  for  this  class  of  animals,  in- 
offensive, mild  and  meek  and  unarmed,  and  seemingly  in- 
tended by  nature  as  food  for  the  ravenous,  carnivorous, 
blood-thirsty  beasts  of  prey.  It  has  thus  been  provided  with 
some  means  of  escaping  extermination,  by  its  habits  of 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 

THE  SHEEP'S  STOMACH. 

a. -Gullet;  6.-Rumen;  c.-Reticulum;  d.-Omasum;  g.-Abomasum; 
/.-Duodenum.    Fig.  2  shows  the  interior  of  the  stomach. 

secretiveness,  feeding  at  night,  or  at  short  intervals  during 
the  days,  in  which  it  is  able  to  swallow  its  hastily  gathered 
food,  and  retiring  to  its  coverts  there  at  leisure  and  in  safety 
completing  its  process  of  remastication  and  performing  the 
needed  functions  of  nutrition. 

A  correct  knowledge  of  the  .stomach  is  therefore  not 
only  interesting  to  the  shepherd,  but  useful  in  the  manage- 
ment of  a  flock.  For  it  is  the  case  that  most  of  the  mishaps 
and  ordinary  diseases  of  the  sheep  are  originated  in  the 
digestive  processes,  which  not  being  duly  performed  lead  to 
a  general  disturbance  of  the  system,  by  which  a  majority  of 
the  ailments  of  the  sheep  are  caused. 

Taking  a  general  view  of  this  organ  we  find  it  to  be 


18  THE    DOMESTIC   SHEEP. 

a  capacious  sack  to  which  are  attached  minor  compart- 
ments lying  between  it  and  the  duodenum  or  first  part  of  the 
bowels,  three  in  number,  thus  making  a  quadruple  bag,  as 
it  were,  through  the  parts  of  \vhich  the  food  passes,  and  in 
each  of  which  a  distinct  process  of  digestion  is  performed. 
The  food  passing  down  ike  gullet  (a)  from  the  mouth,  enters 
the  rumen  or  paunch  (b)  where  it  remains  for  a  time  until, 
at  leisure,  it  is  forced  back  to  the  mouth  by  a  peculiar  move- 
ment of  the  gullet.  This  is  composed  of  rings  surrounded 
by  an  elastic  membrane,  and  which  are  very  easily  dilated 
to  a  considerable  extent.  The  gullet,  also  called  the  esopha- 
gus, passes  through  the  entrance  of  the  rumen  where  it  is 
connected  with  the  second  compartment  as  well  as  with  the 
third,  by  a  canal,  or  gutter,  known  as  the  esophageal  canal. 
This  connects  with  the  rumen  by  a  slit  or  opening  which 
is  closed  except  when  it  is  pressed  open  by  the  force  of  the 
passing  food,  or  by  some  function  of  its  connective  parts. 
This  opening  is  easily  forced,  doubtless  by  the  will  of  the 
animal,  and  as  the  canal  is  filled  with  the  contents  of  the 
rumen  it  closes,  holding  a  cud  or  mass  of  the  food;  this 
then  is  forced  to  the  mouth  by  a  successive  contraction  of 
the  elastic  rings,  in  precisely  the  same  manner,  but  in  a  con- 
trary direction  to  that  by  which  the  food  is  first  swallowed. 
The  cud  then  being  reinasticated  and  diluted  copiously  with 
the  saliva,  is  again  swallowed;  and  by  reason  of  its  soft  and 
semi-liquid  consistency  it  passes  over  this  opening  in  the 
groove  and  goes  into  the  third  compartment,  passing  the 
orifice  of  the  second  stomach  on  its  way.  The  second 
stomach  is  called  the  reticulum  or  honeycomb. 

The  third  stomach  is  called  the  omasum,  commonly  the 
manyplies,  on  account  of  the  large  number  of  leaves  lining- 
it.  These  leaves  with  their  attachments  to  the  walls  of  the 
omasum  are  shown  at  figure  2.  The  food  is  ground  and 
macerated  between  these  leaves  until  it  becomes  sufficiently 
disintegrated  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice  of  the 
fourth  stomach,  known  as  the  abomasum,  which  is  the  true 
digestive  organ. 

To  repeat  concisely  this  function  of  the  stomach,  we  may 
say  that  the  rumen  is  a  sac  in  which  the  food  taken  during 
the  short  and  rapid  feeding  time  is  kept  in  reserve,  and 
whence  it  is  carried  back  to  the  mouth  for  the  process  of 


ANATOMY.  19 

rumination,  after  having  been  more  or  less  softened  by  the 
warmth  and  moisture  of  the  rumen. 

The  second  stomach,  the  reticulum,  participates  in  the 
functions  of  the  rumeD  to  which  it  is  mostly  a  convenient 
appendage.  But  it  always  contains  a  large  quantity  of  liquid 
and  doubtless  plays  the  part  of  a  reservoir  much  as  in  the 
camel,  well  known  to  carry  a  considerable  extra  store  of 
water  for  immediate  use  as  it  may  be  required. 

The  esophageal  canal  carries  into  the  third  stomach  or 
omasum,  past  the  opening  of  the  reticulum,  the  matter 
swallowed  after  rumination,  or  even  any  finely  ground  or 
soft  semi-liquid  food  swallowed  the  first  time,  and  which 
has  not  solidity  and  consistence  sufficient  to  force  open  the 
slit  or  opening  in  the  canal. 

The  omasum  completes  the  final  disintegration  of  the 
food  by  a  process  of  rubbing  or  trituratioii  between  its 
leaves. 

The  abomasum  is  a  true  stomach,  in  which  the  gastric 
juice  is  secreted,  and  which  finally  dissolves  the  nutrimeii- 
tary  substance  of  the  food,  and  renders  it  fit  for  the  absorp- 
tion of  it  by  the  villi  of  the  intestines. 

THE  INTESTINES  AND  THEIR  FUNCTIONS. 

The  intestines  is  a  long  tube  doubled  upon  itself  a  great 
many  times,  through  which  the  digested  food  passes  and 
gives  up  its  nutritive  matter  to  be  absorbed  and  carried  into 
the  blood.  The  internal  coat  of  this  folded  tube  is  covered 
by  a  multitude  of  minute  absorbent  vessels  called  the  villi. 
It  is  a  network  of  blood  vessels  and  so-called  lacteals,  re- 
sembling the  close  pile  of  velvet. 

The  villi  absorb  the  nutritious  matter  of  the  now  com- 
pletely digested  food  and  pass  it  on,  as  it  were,  to  the  great 
portal  vein  by  which  the  dissolved  aliment  of  the  animal, 
fitted  by  complete  digestion  for  the  enrichment  of  the  blood, 
is  carried  to  the  heart,  and  enters  the  right  ventricle,  from 
which  it  is  passed  on  to  the  lungs  where  it  is  brought  into 
contact  with  the  air  breathed  by  the  animal,  absorbing  oxy- 
gen from  it,  and  then  becoming  perfect  blood.  The  blood 
then,  after  this  exposure  to  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  is  forced 
into  the  left  ventricle,  and  from  this  forced  by  the  con- 
traction "of  the  enormously  strong  muscular  action  of  the 


20 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


heart  through  the  arteries  by  which  it  is  poured  into  the 
system  of  capillaries.  These  pervade  every  part  of  the 
body,  internally  and  externally,  and  are  so  closely  distrib- 
uted that  no  part  of  the  system  can  be  punctured  by  the 


THE  INTESTINES  AND   MESENTARY. 

1.    The  duodenum.          2.    The  jejunum.          3.    The  ileum. 

4.  The  coecum,  being  the  anterior  prolongation  of  the  colon,  or 
first  large  intestine.    The  ileum  opens  into  this  (on  the  back  side  as 
presented, in  the  cut),  about  12  inches  from  its  extremity,  the  opening 
defended  by  a  valve. 

5.  The  large  anterior  portion  of  the  colon,  retaining  its  size, 
(about  three  times  that  of  the  smaller  intestines)  for  about  two  feet. 

6.6.  The  colon  tending  toward  the  center. 

7.7.  The  returning  convolutions  of  the  colon. 

8.    The  rectum  or  straight  gut,  communicating  with  the  anus. 
9.9.    The  mesentary,  or  that  portion  of  the  peritoneum  which  re- 
tains the  intestines  in  their  places. 

10.    The  portion  of  the  mesentary  supporting  the  colon,  &c. 
The  united  length  of  these  intestines  is  upward  of  sixty  feet. 


ANATOMY.  21 

finest  needle  without  wounding  some  of  them.  From  these 
the  blood  having  performed  its  function  goes  back  to  th,e 
lungs  where  it  is  purified  by  the  action  of  the  air  breathed 
and  then  to  the  heart  to  be  again  circulated. 

This  brief  description  of  the  nutrition  of  an  animal  goes 
to  show  the  amazing  delicacy  of  the  vital  processes,  and 
considering  that  the  liver,  the  pancreas,  and  the  spleen,  are 
all  charged  with  accessory  functions  in  this  system  of  nutri- 
tion, it  is  no  matter  for  surprise  that  in  the  alimentation 
of  an  animal  we  have  one  of  the  most  profoundly  delicate 
series  of  operations,  the  safe  performance  of  which  is  one 
of  the  greatest  wonders  of  nature.  And  yet  it  goes  on  oper- 
ating constantly— as  the  pulse  of  an  animal  beats— forty- 
eight  times  in  a  minute,  every  beat  carrying  to  the  center 
of  life  a  sufficient  supply  of  aliment  by  which  the  whole  sys- 
tem is  supported,  and  renewed  in  fact,  completely  in  time, 
by  this  addition  to  the  system  of  an  adequate  quantity  and 
kind  of  nutriment. 

This  brief  but  wholly  inadequate  review  of  the  method 
by  which  food  is  made  to  support  life  goes,  however,  to  show 
what  care,  attention,  and  good  judgment  are  necessary  for 
the  welfare  of  a  flock,  too  often  fed  without  thought  of  the 
delicacy  of  the  vital  organs;  and  the  importance  of  keeping 
these  in  a  healthful  working  condition  is  that  the  first  qualifi- 
cation needed  to  insure  the  successful  management  of  a  flock 
is  a  due  acquaintance  with  the  vital  functions  of  a  sheep 
and  a  most  careful  study  of  the  methods  required  to  main- 
tain health  by  a  rigid  adherence  to  the  safe  and  healthful 
alimentation  of  it. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  VARIETIES  AND  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP. 

Such  a  course  of  culture  as  has  been  described,  of  course, 
could  uot  fail  to  establish  in  time  a  large  number  of  varie- 
ties of  sheep.  Individual  tastes  and  preferences;  the  varied 
practice  of  individuals;  many  men  being  of  many  minds; 
differences  of  climate,  of  pasture,  of  soils  even,  and  other 
environments,  it  may  be  sure  must  necessarily  lead  to  the 
growth  of  distinct  varieties  of  sheep.  This  happened  some 
centuries  ago,  and  even  then  the  germs  of  the  present  exist- 
ing breeds  became  differentiated  as  local  varieties,  best 
adapted  to  the  conditions  in  which  they  were  bred,  fed,  and 
reared.  For  we  must  take  notice  that  these  three  elements 
of  variation  in  sheep  are  profoundly  effective  in  fixing  types 
on  the  animals  concerned.  We  may  take  the  English  breeds 
as  the  leading  example  of  this  principle,  as  to  numbers  of  in- 
stances, wrhile  the  American  Merino  and  that  of  the  French, 
the  Spanish  and  the  Saxony  sheep  of  this  class,  not  being 
missed,  but  taken  as  included  in  our  own  bright  example 
of  successful  breeding,  the  American  Merino.  Doubtless  we 
may  not  easily  think  too  highly  of  the  Spanish  Merino  from 
which  our  native  breed  was  first  originated,  for  this  breed 
may  be  said,  as  was  said  by  the  great  Napoleon  of  the  pyra- 
mids of  Egypt,  "forty  centuries  look  down"  upon  us,  when 
we  consider  the  Merino  of  Spain.  But  as  that  unfortunate 
nation  has  gone  down  in  the  scale  of  history,  after  a  glorious 
past,  which  we  can  never  forget,  so  the  Spanish  Merino 
sheep,  greatly  useful  in  its  time,  has  gone  out  of  history, 
which  has  swiftly  passed  on  before  it  and  left  it  to  be  for- 
gotten as  the  present  factor  in  the  study  of  the  modern 
sheep. 

THE  AMERICAN  MERINO. 

Let  us  begin  our  classification  with  this  remarkable 
example  of  American  enterprise  and  skillful  culture,  and 
the  effect  of  its  environments  upon  this  susceptible  animal. 


24  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

It  was  in  the  year  1801,  four  years  now  short  of  a  cen- 
tury, that  Mr.  DeLessert,  a  French  banker,  owning  a  farm 
near  Kingston  in  the  State  of  New  York,  imported  a  single 
sheep,  one  of  four-  shipped  from  Spain,  ihree  of  which  died 
on  the  passage.  Mr.  Seth  Adams  of  Massachusetts  the  same 
year  with  better  fortune  imported  a  pair  from  France,  and 
probably  of  pure  Spanish  extraction  and  blood,  as  the  French 
Merino  specially  was  not  then  in  existence,  but  about  to  be- 
come so  only  as  a  special  product  of  pure  Spanish  blood 
under  French  culture.  The  next  year  two  pairs  were  sent 
from  France  by  Mr.  Livingston,  our  Minister  to  that  coun- 
try, to  his  estate  on  the  Hudson  river  in  New  York.  The 
most  important  importation,  however,  was  made  in  this  same 
year  by  Mr.  Humphreys,  our  Minister  to  Spain,  who  brought 
home  with  him  two  hundred.  Seven  years  later  our  Minister 
to  Portugal,  Mr.  Wm.  Jarvis  of  Vermont,  sent  home  large 
flocks,  and  still  more  in  the  two  years  after.  All  these  sheep 
were  procured  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  and 
were  the  best  specimens  of  the  best  flocks  that  could  be 
selected. 

After  these  other  shipments  were  made  but  none  of 
importance.  These  sheep,  soon  naturalized,  throve  exceed- 
ingly, the  produce  soon  greatly  exceeded  the  original  flocks 
in  product  of  wool  and  general  stamina  of  constitution,  and 
there  are  several  flocks  now  existing  in  the  United  States  in 
which  the  pure  blood,  unmixed  by  any  other,  still  flows. 

The  number  of  sheep  thus  imported  amounted  to  3,850 
head  and  were  made  up  of  the  finest  of  the  Spanish  flocks 
that  were  confiscated  by  the  Spanish  Government,  as  one  of 
the  penalties  of  political  offences  by  four  leading  Spanish 
noblemen.  There  could  not  have  been  any  more  favorable 
opportunity  of  thus  practically  transferring  the  best  blood 
of  the  Spanish  flocks  to  a  new  country  and  location;  and 
this  turned  out  to  be  by  virtue  of  the  favorable  soil  and  cli- 
mate, as  well  as  of  the  energy  and  enterprise  of  the  New 
England  and  New  York  breeders;  and  thus  the  successful 
transplanting  of  the  flocks  of  Spain  was  accomplished. 
The  foundation  of  the  best  breed  of  Merinos  in  the  world 
was  thus  laid  on  the  most  favorable  soil,  and  has  been  built 
upon  by  the  native  skill  and  aptitude  of  the  American  shep- 
herds still  further  with  most  satisfactory  results. 


§1 

3   ® 

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> x 

wl 

H  _r 
1 

CO 

55 
% 
f4 
fe 


26  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

There  need  be  no  surprise  at  the  result,  which  has  been 
that  our  American  Merino  is  the  best  sheep  of  its  class  in 
the  world,  and  that  our  breeders  have  the  whole  world  at 
their  feet,  offering  the  highest  prices  for  our  ranis  for  the 
improvement  and  support  of  foreign  flocks.  It  has  been  a 
marked  example  of  the  fitness  of  our  soils  and  climate  and 
of  our  fertile  pastures  for  the  special  industry  of  the  shep- 
herd. 

A  combination  of  circumstances,  however,  soon  combined 
to  bring  on  a  disastrous  speculation,  by  which,  first,  the 
prices  of  wrool  advancing  on  account  of  the  war  of  1812,  led  to 
an  equivalent  advance  in  the  value  of  these  sheep.  Wool 
sold  for  $2.50  a  pound,  and  sheep  brought  a  thousand  dollars 
for  ewes,  and  fifteen  hundred  for  rams.  As  soon  as  the  war 
ended,  in  1815,  of  course  the  sustaining  prop  to  this  specula- 
tion gave  way,  and  sheep  that  had  been  purchased  at  these 
high  prices  were  unsalable  at  one  dollar  a  head.  This  is 
only  one  instance  of  the  many  that  have  occurred  of  the 
injury  done  to  the  most  intrinsically  valuable  interests  by 
senseless  speculation,  in  which  the  cursed  thirst  for  wealth 
leads  men  to  lose  their  heads,  and  not  only  to  ruin  them- 
selves but  overwhelm  the  most  valuable  and  important  busi- 
ness interests  in  temporary  disaster.  This  is  especially  true 
of  the  sheep,  which  has  been  all  through  its  civilized  history 
a  sort  of  foot  ball  for  politicans,  sometimes  protected  unduly, 
when  it  becomes  an  object  for  the  frantic  antics  of  the  spec- 
ulator; then  after  a  time  of  excessive  inflation  a  collapse 
comes  by  reason  of  its  abandonment  to  the  competition  of 
the  rest  of  the  wTorld,  in  which  it  is  sacrificed  with  as  sense- 
less want,  of  judgment  as  in  the  previous  instance  of  its 
undue  speculative  inflation.  The  history  of  the  Merino  is  a 
most  conspicuous  instance  of  this  unwise  and  wholly  de- 
structive course  of  public  policy.  It  would  seem  to  be  the 
wise  part  to  either  leave  the  sheep  alone  to  work  out  their 
own  destiny  in  competition  with  the  world,  or  to  adopt  such 
a  wise  policy  as  would  ensure  due  protection  to  this  impor- 
tant source  of  wealth,  and  at  the  same  time  produce  an  ade- 
quate revenue  for  the  government  from  imports  of  wool 
and  woolens,  and  adhere  to  this  for  a  term  of  twenty-five 
or  forty  years,  during  which  this  great  interest  might  have 
become  so  firmly  fixed  and  established,  that  if  it  wero 


AMERICAN   MERINO  27 

thought  desirable  it  might  gradually  be  left  to  support  itself. 
This  has  been  the  course  of  the  British  Government,  whose 
policy  heretofore  has  been  the  strictest  protection  of  native 
industries,  not  only  by  tariffs  but  by  the  severest  laws,  even 
so  far  as  capital  punishment,  for  transgressors  of  these 
laws.  For  it  is  only  recently  that  the  English  statutes,  by 
which  hanging  was  made  the  penalty  for  stealing  a  sneep, 
and  equally  severe  penalties  were  inflicted  upon  those  who 
violated  the  statutes  made  forbidding  importations  or  ex- 
portation of  the  products  of  the  flocks,  were  modified  or  re- 
pealed. And  to  show  the  high  consideration  in  which  this 
interest  of  the  shepherd  was  held,  the  seat  of  the  highest 
judicial  functionary  in  England  was  a  woolsack,  and  even 
at  the  present  time  the  seat  of  the  Lord  Chancellor  of  Great 
Britain  is  called  the  woolsack.  This  is  only  one  of  the 
methods  by  which  the  British  Empire  has  attained  its  vast 
power,  and  its  citizens  their  enormous  wealth,  by  which 
their  government  dominates  the  world,  and  the  British 
flag  floats  over  every  prominent  location  for  a  fortress;  and 
as  the  earth  turns  in  its  daily  course  the  sun  shines  con- 
tinuously on  it  somewhere.  Truly,  in  the  infancy  of  what 
is  in  time  to  be— if  only  true  wisdom  is  its  guide— the  greatest 
civilized  nation  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  the  American  peo- 
ple, should  not  cast  aside  the  universal  experience  of  the  past 
during  which  every  great  empire  has  laid  the  toundation 
for  its  wealth  and  consequent  power  by  a  due  policy  of  pro- 
tection of  its  own  interests. 

The  result  of  the  best  breeding  of  this  race  of  sheep  haa 
been  marked  by  a  continuous  improvement.  The  weight  of 
the  carcass  has  been  increased  twenty-five  per  cent.  Its 
form  has  been  improved  in  that  way  by  which  the  yield  of 
the  fleece  has  been  doubled;  the  legs  have  been  shortened 
and  the  back  broadened  at  least  one-third,  the  wool  pro- 
ducing surface  thus  being  increased,  while  the  density  of 
the  wool  on  the  skin  is  greater.  As  a  wool-bearer  this  breed 
has  been  greatly  improved,  while  the  mutton  has  been  made 
more  marketable.  And  as  a  sire  for  market  lambs  the  Ameri- 
can Merino,  crossed  on  the  Southdown  or  Shropshire  ewe, 
"  has  been  found  to  excel  all  others. 


28  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

POINTS  OP  EXCELLENCE  IN  A  MERINO. 

The  American  Merino  should  have  a  round,  well  filled  up 
carcass.  Evenly  proportioned  as  to  length  with  the  plump, 
round  barrel,  and  deep  chest  and  flanks.  The  back  is 
straight  and  broad;  the  neck  is  short  and  deep;  the  head 
short  and  broad  on  the  forehead.  The  legs  are  short,  widely 
placed,  strong,  with  a  full  forearm  and  twist.  The  skin  is 
of  a  clear  pink  in  color,  mellow  to  the  touch  and  loosely 
held  on  the  body.  Paleness  of  the  skin  is  an  indication  of 
a  weak  constitution,  impurity  of  blood,  or  ill  health.  When 
the  wool  is  opened  the  skin  under  it  should  be  clear,  bright, 
clean,  and  wholly  free  from  scurfiuess.  The  wrinkles  and 
folds  in  it  are  mostly  a  matter  of  taste,  they  add  but  little  to 
the  value  of  the  fleece;  and  the  present  fashion,  and  one  to 
be  admired,  is  to  lessen  them  as  much  as  possible.  For  the 
some-time  fashionable  deep  folds  on  the  neck  add  nothing 
to  the  real  value  of  the  rams,  unless  it  may  be  for  the  pur- 
pose of  improving  the  lighter  bodied  native  races  or  the  poor 
Mexican  ewes. 

The  Merino  being  a  wool  sheep  before  anything  else, 
its  fleece  is  the  principal  point  of  excellence.  This  should 
be  close  and  compact  on  the  skin,  having  sufficient  yolk  to 
preserve  the  soft  texture,  and  grease  enough  to  protect  it 
from  the  rains.  The  close  top  of  a  Merino  fleece  is  therefore 
a  protection  to  the  sheep  against  the  weather,  and  in  choos- 
ing breeding  animals  this  is  a  point  to  be  considered  in  the 
rams. 

As  a  special  wool  grower  the  Merino  should  have  its 
body  as  completely  covered  by  the  fleece  as  possible.  Thus 
the  whole  sheep  is  enveloped  in  the  fleece  down  to  tlje  feet, 
and  the  face  is  covered  except  the  eyes.  Tfoe  absence  of  hair 
in  the  fleece  is  a  chief  point  in  this  regard.  The  curl  of  the 
wool  and  a  wavy  appearance  of  it  on  opening  the  fleece  is  a 
point  to  be  regarded  with  favor.  So  is  the  softness  and 
elasticity  of  the  fleece.  There  should  not  be  too  much  yolk 
in  it;  this  is  a  waste  so  far  as  there  may  be  an  excess  over 
and  above  the  natural  quantity  required  to  prevent  matting 
of  the  fleece,  and  to  give  it  its  due  protective  character  for 
the  comfort  and  health  of  the  animal. 

The  eye  of  a  sheep  is  to  be  studied  as  one  of  the  points 
by  which  its  condition  of  health  is  to  be  ascertained.  A 


SUB-BREEDS  OP  THE  MERINO.  29 

bright  active  eye,  clear  and  free  from  all  tinge  of  yellow, 
is  an  indication  of  good  constitution  and  health.  Any  tinge 
of  yellowness  is  a  fault  not  sufficiently  taken  note  of  in  judg- 
ing sheep,  for  unless  the  sheep  is  healthy  and  sound  in  every 
way,  whatever  excellencies  it  may  possess  in  other  respects 
are  still  worthless  to  the  breeder,  if  the  healthful  and  sound 
constitution  is  wanting. 

SUB-BREEDS    OF    THE    MERINO. 

As  might  be  expected,  and  as  has  happened  with  cattle, 
there  will  always  arise  in  the  breeding  of  ainy  distinct  class 
of  sheep,  by  virtue  of  the  variation  due  to  the  different  sys- 
tems, methods,  and  environments,  followed  by  breeders, 
some  more  or  less  distinct  families  which  have  all  the 
special  characteristics  of  the  breed,  but  differ  in  some 
special  points.  The  Short-horn  breed  of  cattle— for  instance- 
when  in  the  hands  of  those  two  reuowed  breeders,  Mr.  Bates 
and  Mr.  Booth,  soon  became  differentiated  so  much  as  to 
form  two  distinct  families,  known  as  the  Bates  and  the 
Booth  Short-horns.  Each  of  these  still  possessed  the  dis- 
tinct qualifications  of  the  main  breed,  but  varied  as  to  some 
special  points.  Thus  one  became  the  best  beef  animals  and 
the  other,  with  this  qualification,  possessed  excellent  dairy 
qualities.  Each  breeder  it  seems,  and  indeed  of  necessity, 
gave  a  sort  of  personality  to  his  own  stock,  and  this  was 
maintained  by  those  other  breeders  who  strove  to  preserve, 
by  similar  culture  and  infusions  of  new  blood  of  each  class, 
this  distinctive  difference  in  minor  points,  and  so  infused 
this  personality  as  may  be  said  into  each  sub-breed. 

This  has  occurred,  as  mjght  have  been  expected,  and 
indeed  of  necessity,  with  our  Merino  sheep.  And  thus  it  is 
that  we  have  some  distinct  classes  or  sub-breeds  of  the 
Merino,  just  as  have  beem  produced  in  the  case  of  the 
Saxony,  the  Silesia,  the  Rambouillet,  and  the  American 
Merino.  These  do  not  necessarily  enter  into  competition 
with  the  special  Merino,  but  fill  that  place  which  will  always 
exist  among  sheep  breeders,  and  among  the  sheep  fanners 
as  well,  which  will  always  be  open^  and  is  due  to  individual 
preferences.  It  is  well  that  this  is  so,  for  it  tends  to  the 
maintenance  of  such  a  competition  among  these  classes, 
or  sub-breeds,  as  must  give  rise  to  the  best  efforts  of  all  con- 


30  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

cerned  to  maintain  the  excellence  and  superiority  of  the 
main  class  of  wbich  these  may  be  considered  subordinate; 
and  each  of  which  may  possess  some  special  peculiarity 
which  renders  it  more  satisfactory  to  the  public  generally. 
Thus  wre  have  the  so-called  Dickinson  Polled  Merinos,  the 
Standard  Delaine  Merinos,  and  the  Black-Top  Merinos. 

THE  DICKINSON  MERINO. 

This  breed  originated  in  Ohio,  by  the  successful  efforts 
of  Mr.  William  K.  Dickinson  of  Stubenville.  It  sprang  from 
the  Humphrey  importation,  some  of  which  were  purchased 
by  Mr.  Kotch  of  Connecticut  who  moved  to  Massilon  in  Ohio, 
and  carried  with  him  a  selected  flock  of  these  sheep.  This 
was  about  eighty  years  ago.  Through  some  unfortunate 
financial  reverses  the  flock  in  part  came  into  the  possession 
of  Mr.  Dickinson,  through  whom  they  in  time  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Mr.  James  McDowell,  who  had  been  the  shep- 
herd of  Mr.  Dickinson  for  many  years. 

This  flock  was  then  the  only  pure  bred  descendants  of 
the  original  flock,  selected  at  first  from  the  importation  of 
Mr.  Humphrey's.  Since  1831  these  sheep  have  been  in  the 
hands  of  Mr.  McDowell  who  has  bred  them  with  absolute 
purity,  and  with  such  success  that  at  the  present  time  they 
are  scattered  in  the  hands  of  over  one  hundred  breeders, 
who  have  formed  an  association  in  whose  records  there  are 
now  six  thousand  pedigrees,  tracing  directly  to  the  original 
stock. 

This  breed  produces  a  beautifully-fine  standard  delaine 
wool,  from  four  to  five  inches  long,  with  a  soft  and  glossy 
fiber,  clean  and  well  crimped.  The  breed  is  hornless  and 
makes  an  excellent  mutton  sheep.  It  has  good  size,  the 
rams  weighing  from  200  Ibs.  in  ordinary  condition,  and  up 
to  300  whejn  fat  and  full  fleshed.  The  ewes  in  good  breed- 
ing condition  weigh  150  Ibs.  and  a  finished  wether  200  Ibs. 
The  fleece  in  the  grease  weighs,  for  rams,  from  20  up  to 
40  Ibs.  and  for  ewes  15  to  25  Ibs.  This  sheep  has  been  bred 
distinctly  for  its  carcass  of  fine  mutton,  as  much  as  for  its 
excellent  fleece. 

THE  STANDARD  DELAINE. 

This  breed  originated  through  the  desire  of  a  number  of 
breeders  of  the  Delaine  variety  of  the  Merino,  to  improve 


32 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


the  existing  sbeep,  so  as  to  produce  an  excellent  mutton 
animal  with  an  improved  fleece.  A  smooth  bodied  animal 
was  desired,  well  covered  with  a  good  fleece  of  long  stapled 
fin<3  wool,  and  having  a  broad  back  and  deep  quarters.  The 
best  milking  quality  was  one  of  the  main  objects  as  well  as 
to  get  rid  of  the  deeply  wrinkled  body.  This  desire  led  to 
the  formation  of  The  Standard  Delaine  Spanish-Merino  As- 
sociation, in  great  part  due  to  the  efforts  of  Mr.  S.  M. 
Cleaver  of  Washington  County,  Pa.,  a  locality  noted  for  its 
fine  sheep  and  intelligent  and  enterprising  flock  owtners,  for 
many  years  past.  A  scale  of  points  was  established  in  which 
prominence  is  given  to  the  fleece,  its  quantity  and  quality, 
length  and  strength  of  staple;  and  equally  to  the  size  and 
form  of  carcass,  the  mutton  qualities  of  which  are  estimated 
by  the  deep  and  rounded  quarters,  the  broad  straight  back, 
and  the  weight  of  the  rams  at  not  less  than  150  Ibs.  and  of 
the  ewes  not  less  than  100. 

These  standards  are  now  considerably  surpassed,  in  fact, 
as  the  rams  weigh  170  to  200  Ibs.,  and  the  ewes  120  to  150. 
This  sheep  matures  early  and  fattens  easily. 


DOM  PEDRO. 

Imported  from  France  by  M.  Desselert,  1801. 


34  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

THE  NATIONAL   DELAINE. 

This  is  another  sub-breed  of  this  class  which  originated 
in  Washington  County,  Pa.,  in  1880,  mainly  through  the 
efforts  and  influence  of  Mr.  J.  C.  MeNary.  This  locality  has 
a  past  history  in  regard  to  its  sheep  and  its  skillful  breeders, 
common  with  Vermont,  and  the  outgrowth  of  it  has  beeo  a 
somewhat  special  class  of  Merino  sheep  known  as  the  Wash- 
ington County  Merino.  Nearly  thirty  years  ago  rams  were 
brought  from  Vermont  and  crossed  on  the  sheep  then  known 
as  the  native  Merino.  This  crossing  resulted  in  the  form  of 
sheep  now  known  as  the  American  or  National  Delaine,  a 
sheep  with  a  long  fleece  fit  for  combing,'  and  yet  retaining  its 
peculiar  fineness  and  strength  of  fiber,  and  as  well  having  a 
larger  carcass  than  the  original  Merino  with  far  better 
mutton  character.  That  these  different  varieties  should  be 
formed  in  the  limit  of  a  single  county  speaks  strongly  as 
to  the  skill  and  intelligence  of  the  sheep  breeders,  of  whom, 
those  organized  in  the  various  parts  of  the  county,  each 
formed  in  their  minds  what  kind  of  sheep  they  wanted 
to  meet  the  demands  of  the  butchers  and  the  wool  ma/nu- 
facturers  together;  and  going  to  work  made  each  kind  of 
sheep  they  desired.  No  more  evidence  of  the  intelligence  of 
these  breeders  can  be  afforded  than  these  useful  sheep  to 
which  their  ideas  have  given  form  in  these  local  sub-breeds. 
They  have  satisfied  every  need  of  the  shepherd;  a  fine  heavy 
fleeced  sheep  for  the  wool  manufacturer  and  a  well  bodied 
one  for  the  butcher. 

These  examples  testify  to  the  correctness  of  the  views  of 
the  author  expressed  in  the  chapter  on  breeding,  by  which 
he  shows  that  variation  in  breeding  is  the  expression  of  a 
personal  idea  of  fitness  and  value,  and  that  locality,  with 
varying  conditions,  must  necessarily  lead  to  variations  in 
type,  just  as  these  instances  of  these  sub-breeds  formed  by 
individual  instincts,  as  might  be  said  of  the  intelligent 
breeders,  and  the  personality  of  each  breeder,  is  expressed 
in  his  favorite  type  of  animal.  That  the  association  of  these 
intelligent  breeders  to  form  scales  of  points  and  permanent 
distinguishing  types  of  sheep  have  been  duly  formed,  and 
are  now  in  action,  is  the  only  means  possible  of  preserving 
these  types  permanently;  and  while  each  one  can  scarcely 
be  called  a  distinct  breed,  the  outgrowth  of  these  if  well 


36  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

cultivated  must  in  time  eventuate  in  permanently  estab- 
lished breeds,  gradually  forming  distinct  characters,  and  as 
valuable  as  the  good  sense  and  business  skill  of  those  in- 
terested may  make  possible. 

THE  IMPROVED  DELAINE   MERINO. 

The  Improved  Delaine  Merino  is  another  branch  of  the 
Delaine  family.  In  1890,  a  registry  association  was  formed 
in  Central  Ohio,  including  the  flocks  of  Messrs.  Henry,  Long, 
Hagenbuck,  Bailey,  Silvens,  Turnbull,  Horn,  Crittenden, 
Newcomer,  Swain,  Braden  and  others,  the  object  of  the  or- 
ganization being  the  preservation  of  purity  in  the  De- 
laine Merino  and  the  encouragement  of  further  development 
in  the  production  of  a  mutton  sheep  of  large  size,  strong 
constitution  and  compact  symmetrical  form,  with  a  heavy 
fleece  of  fine  Delaine  wool.  No  sheep  with  other  than  pure 
Delaine  blood  are  permitted  to  enter  the  register. 

The  weight  of  a  mature  ewe  of  this  breed  should  run 
from  100  to  120  pounds  and  her  fleece  from  9  to  14  pounds  of 
long,  white,  well  crimped  and  fine  delaine  staple,  showing 
a  free  flow  *of  white  oil.  The  mature  ram  in  full  fleece 
should  weigh  from  160  to  210  pounds,  averaging  about  175 
or  180  pounds. 

The  association  has  grown  rapidly  and  now  embraces  a 
good  number  of  well  known  flocks  scattered  throughout  the 
states  and  territories,  the  principal  flock  centers  being  Belle- 
fontaine,  Urbana  and  Cedarville,  Ohio. 

THE   BLACK   TOP  SPANISH  MERINO, 

As  a  distinct  breed,  dates  back  to  the  formation  of  the  flock  of 
the  late  Wm.  Berry  of  Washington  County,  Pa.,  in  1821.  Mr. 
Berry  obtained  his  foundation  stock  from  the  famous  flock  of 
the  late  W.  R.  Dickinson,  of  Steubenville,  Ohio,  and  bred  his 
flock  up  with  great  care  until  late  in  the  40's,  when  it  was 
.divided  between  his  sons  William  and  Matthew  Berry,  from 
whose  flocks  came  the  foundations  for  the  later  flocks  of 
William,  John  M.  and  C.  M.  Berry.  From  these  have  sprung 
a  multitude  of  other  flocks  now  widely  scattered  over  the 
United  States.  The  organization  of  the  flock  registry  asso- 
ciation for  recording  these  sheep  and  maintaining  purity  of 
blood  and  a  high  standard  of  form,  fleece  and  general  char- 


«  8 

s  3 

1 1 


38 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


aeter  for  them,  was  perfected  in  the  early  80' s,  and  the 
association  is  11Qw  one  of  the  leading  sub-Merino  record 
societies  in  the  country,  with  headquarters  in  Washington 
County,  Pa.  This  excellent  breed  of  sheep  is  briefly  charac- 
terized by  its  chief  promoters  as  follows: 

Full  grown  rams  in  fleece  should  weigh  not  less  than  175 
Ibs.,  and  mature  ewes,  in  fleece,  not  less  than  120  Ibs.  In 
normal  physical  development  they  should  be  deep  and  large 
in  the  breast  and  through  the  heart,  with  broad  back,  square 
quarters,  fine  pinkish  skin,  well  expanded  nostril,  bright 
eye,  clean,  healthy  countenance,  head  carried  well  up,  body 
symmetrical  and  of  good  length,  of  heavy  bone,  smooth 
joints,  well  sprung  ribs,  broad,  flat  shoulders,  strong  muscles, 
plain  body  and  small  dew-laps.  Head  should  be  wide  with 
medium  length,  medium,  well-defined  ears,  covered  with  soft 
fur.  Ewes  hornless,  but  rams  should  have  good,  clear,  finely 
curved  horns.  The  neck  medium  length  and  strong,  deepen- 
ing toward  the  shoulders.  Legs  medium  length,  good  bone 
and  well  apart,  and  the  feet  medium  size,  well  turned  and 
firm.  The  fleece  should  be  even  and  crimpy,  covering  the 
body  and  legs  to  the  knees,  and  the  head  well  covered  for- 
ward between  the  eyes,  and  free  from  hair.  Staple,  medium 
or  fine  delaine,  not  less  than  three  inches  long,  of  uniform 
length,  and  fleece  compact  with  free  flowing  white  oil  form- 
ing on  the  exterior  a  uniform  dark  coating. 


WILD  SHEEP  OF  NORTHERN  EUROPE. 


o 

2 
o 

Jl 

p     - 
'.-    >-> 


?  § 
^  fi 


40  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

THE  IMPROVED  BLACK  TOP  MERINO. 

This  strain  of  the  Merino  is  represented  by  a  class  of 
sheep  of  which  the  prevailing  characteristic  is  the  uniform 
dark  top  on  the  surface  of  the  fleece,  due  to  the  even  dis- 
tribution of  the  natural  oil  which  lubricates  the  fleece  of  all 
sheep,  but  most  especially  of  the  various  strains  of  the 
Merino.  It  is  a  question  among  breeders  of  this  type  of 
sheep,  whether  the  oil  and  yolk  are  really  of  any  value 
to  the  fleece,  at  least  to  the  large  extent  to  w-liich  it  accom- 
panies the  wool.  This  matter  has  been  incidentally  referred 
to  in  preceding  pages  and  the  belief  expressed  that  this  oil 
and  yolk  is  indispensable  to  this  class  of  sheep,  for  the 
reason,  that  as  its  fiber  is  so  much  crimped  and  wavy,  and 
inclined  to  felt,  the  natural  supply  of  the  oily  matter  of  the 
fleece  is  indispensable  to  the  actual  value  of  it.  The  special 
character  of  the  wool  of  the  Merino  classes,  and  its  strong 
tendency  to  felt  together,  render  this  natural  product  of  the 
highest  value,  and  we  cannot  dispense  with  it. 

In  the  scale  of  points  of  this  sub-breed  of  the  Merinos, 
the  oil  in  the  fleece  is  rated  at  six  per  cent;  the  staple,  not 
less  than  three  and  a  half  indies  in  length,  eight;  the 
condition  of  the  fleece  at  six,  the  quality  of  the  wool  at  seven, 
the  evenness  of  the  fleece  at  eight,  the  body  at  sixteen,  and 
the  size  and  constitution  at  thirty.  These  figures  tell  the 
story  of  the  aims  and  ends  of  the  breeders  of  this  class  of 
the  Merino. 

The  weights  run  from  180  for  rams  to  130  Ibs.  for  ewes, 
and  the  regularity  of  the  make  up  in  general  goes  to  figure 
out  a  fair  mutton  animal.  The  breed  originated  from  the 
nock  of  Mr.  Dickinson  of  Ohio,  the  direct  produce  of  the 
Humphrey  importations  from  Spain  in  1802.  By  close  but 
judicious  breeding,  this  present  strain— or  breed  as  it  is  now 
entitled  to  be  called— has  become  differentiated  from  the 
common  American  Merinos,  and  is  marked  by  the  special 
characteristics  set  forth  in  the  herd  record  of  the  Associa- 
tion, Lu  which  six  hundred  and  sixty  animals  are  entered, 
being  the  aggregate  of  nine  pure  bred  flocks  all  going  back 
to  the  original  Humphrey  importation.  The  flock  of  the 
President  of  the  Association,  Mr.  Robert  Johnson  of  Wash- 
ington County,  Fa.,  was  founded  in  1844.  Since  that  time 
the  best  rams  to  be  procured  have  been  selected,  but  for 


43  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

thirteen  years  past  the  flock  has  had  110  infusion  of  outside 
blood. 

THE  SAXONY  MERINO. 

The  sheep  is  one  of  the  indispensable  acquisitions  of  the 
human  race,  and  all  the  kinds  in  existence,  and  those 
that  may  come  into  existence  hereafter,  will  find  a  welcome 
and  a  home  among  the  rest  of  the  Hocks.  Once  on  a  time 
the  Merino,  and  the  Saxony  Merino  especially,  was  the 
highest  valued  of  all  the  ovine  race.  That  was  when  the 
exquisitely  fine  fleece  was  in  high  demand  for  the  manu- 
facture of  the  best  broadcloths  used  for  the  clothing  of 
the  wealthy  and  fashionable  people,  who  dare  not  appear 
at  any  social  gathering  or  festival  except  in  this  finest 
of  all  attire.  But  this  habit,  both  in  respect  of  manner 
and  dress,  still  prevails,  and  this  finest  wooled  sheep  of  all 
the  fine  wool  class,  will  possibly  ever  be  in  the  first  place 
among  the  finest  wooled  sheep. 

It  is  the  offspring  of  the  ancient  Merino,  from  which  the 
Spanish  flocks  descended,  through  two  thousand  years  of 
the  history  of  a  turbulent  period,  during  which  our  present 
civilization  was  in  process  of  slow  growth.  In  spite  of 
wars  and  the  dense  ignorance  of  the  so-called  dark  ages, 
the  Spanish  flocks  survived,  and  in  time  became  the  progeni- 
tors of  this  race.  By  reason  of  the  well  adapted  climate, 
and  high  culture  of  the  farms,  as  well  as  of  the  sheep,  this 
breed  improved  in  quality,  and  soon  after  its  firm  establish- 
ment it  became  the  chief  producer  of  the  fine  wools  for 
which  Germany  has  long  been  noted,  and  now  stands  in 
the  first  place  among  the  nations  for  its  fine  woolens,  especi- 
ally for  the  finest  cloths  and  hosiery.  In  respect  of 
climatic  adaptation,  the  United  States  is  first  in  the  whole 
world,  and  a  place  is,  and  always  will  be,  found  for  every 
kind  of  sheep  or  other  domestic  animals;  and  as  our  cattle 
and  horses  have  surpassed  in  value  and  excellence  their 
progenitors  in  other  countries,  so  the  sheep  of  every  kind 
may  find  room  and  development  by  the  culture  of  our  intelli- 
gent shepherds. 

The  fleece  of  this  sheep  has  sold  for  three  dollars  and 
twenty-five  cents  a  pound,  and  while  intense  speculation  at 
times  has  been  disastrous  to  the  breed  along  with  other  of 


I! 


44  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

the  Merino  class,  yet  it  has  survived  and  its  wool  known  as 
Electoral,  from  the  title  of  the  Saxon  Prince  who  fostered 
it  with  much  care  in  its  earlier  days,  always  brings,  aaid 
doubtless  always  will  bring,  the  highest  price  of  any  wool 
produced. 

Its  greatest  value,  however,  is  for  crossing  on  the  coarser 
breeds  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  fleece,  and  past 
experience  goes  to  show  that  this,  the  finest  wool  sheep 
existing,  has  undoubtedly  an  important  place  to  fill  in  the 
future  rearing  of  a  larger  bodied  animal  with  a  fleece 
of  equal  fineness  and  strength  and  brilliance  of  staple.  We 
may  know  what  has  occurred  in  this  line  of  improving 
sheep,  but  our  dreams,  even,  may  not  equal  the  reality 
which  may  happen  in  time  in  this  direction.  The  advance 
of  every  industry  in  every  direction,  is  a  constant  denial 
of  the  thought  that  we  have  reached  perfection  in  any  de- 
gree in  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  sheep,  or  in  the  product 
of  wool.  And  the  field  for  enterprise  is  wide  open,  and  al- 
ways will  be  for  skillful  experiment  by  advanced  breeders. 
Of  late  years  the  carcass  of  this  sheep  has  been  increased 
in  size,  and  like  that  of  the  larger  French  Merino  varieties, 
makes  fine  mutton,  having  an  excellent  flavor.  With  our 
greater  advantage  here  we  may  well  expect  to  make  this 
once  smallest  of  its  race  equal  to  any  others  of  it,  as  a 
mutton  sheep.  In  its  original  home  it  has  been  considerably 
improved  in  this  way,  and  in  the  hands  of  the  equally  intel- 
ligent and  skillful  American  breeders  it  will  have  a  success- 
ful future. 

THE  RAMBOU1LLET  MERINO. 

The  so-called  Rambouillet  Merino  breed  of  sheep  has  be- 
come exceedingly  popular  during  a  few  years  past.  This  is 
really  the  true  French  Merino,  quite  as  much  so  deserving 
this  name  as  our  native  bred  Merino  deserves  to  be  called  as 
a  distinguishing  name  the  American  Merino.  For  it  has  a 
longer  history  as  a  distinct  family  of  the  Spanish  Merino 
than  the  American  variety  has,  for  it  was  first  originated 
some  years  before  the  first  importation  of  the  Merino  into 
the  United  States. 

It  was  in  1780  that  the  French  Government,  with  the 
intention  of  founding  a  special  race  of  sheep  fitted  for  the 


•  m 


46  THE   DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

climate  and  other  conditions  of  the  country— then  having  no 
distinct  and  really  valuable  breed  of  sheep  within  its  bor- 
ders—purchased, with  the  friendly  help  of  the  Spanish  Gov- 
ernment, over  three  hundred  of  the  finest  specimens  of  the 
sheep  of  that  country.  A  suitable  farm  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  this  flock  was  procured  at  a  place  known  as  llaiii- 
bouillet,  not  far  from  Paris,  and  once  the  residence  of  the 
kings  of  France.  In  the  beautiful  park  near  the  otherwise 
unuoteworthy  village  of  this  name,  this  flock  was  cultivated 
with  the  highest  skill  by  the  Government  for  the  advantage 
of  the  citizens.  No  sheep  were  sold  for  many  years,  nor 
until—by  selection  and  breeding— a  distinctly  new  race,  in- 
deed a  well-defined  breed,  was  produced  differing  in  several 
important  points  from  the  original  foundation  stock. 

It  was  increased  in  size,  and  even  more  than  proportion- 
ately to  this  in  the  weight  of  the  fleece,  the  wool  of  which 
was  increased  in  length  to  fully  three  inches  and  even  more, 
while  the  exquisite  fineness  and  delicacy  of  fiber  was  in  no 
ways  depreciated.  The  size  of  the  sheep  became  double 
that  of  the  original  Spanish  flock,  full  grown  ewes  weighing 
up  to  two  hundred  pounds,  and  the  rams  up  to  three  hun- 
dred, live  weight.  This  improved  fleece  became  the  valua- 
ble staple  for  the  manufacture  of  those  popular  dress  goods 
known  as  the  French  Merino,  as  well  as  for  mixed  fabrics 
of  cotton  warp  and  weft  of  this  wool,  and  which  were 
known  as  delaines.  From  this  style  of  exceedingly  popular 
fabric,  which  was  beautifully  printed  in  the  French  facto- 
ries, this  sheep  has  taken  the  sometime  name  of  the  Delaine 
Merino.  Here  it  takes  the  name  commonly,  of  the  place  of 
Its  origin  as  the  Rambouillet  breed,  and  truly  it  deserves 
this  popular  name  in  commemoration  of  the  place  of  its 
origin,  which  will  doubtless  retain  this  name,  and  for  years 
to  come  in  the  future  in  association  with  this  magnificent 
sheep,  valued  both  for  its  flesh  and  its  wool,  when  all  remem- 
brance of  the  frivolous  and  vicious  occupants  of  the  park 
and  ancient  chateau  will  have  been  lost  in  the  then  long 
past. 

The  author  visited  this  flock  in  the  year  1848,  and  was 
entertained  in  the  most  cordial  manner  by  the  superin- 
tendent, who  prepared  a  saddle  of  the  mutton,  cooked  es- 
pecially in  the  American  style,  as  a  sample  of  the  excellent 


48  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

quality  of  the  meat.  The  sheep  had  been  fed  on  the  fine 
pastures  of  the  park  and  on  beets  specially  grown  for  the 
Hocks.  The  meat  was  distinctly  equal  to  the  best  of  the  Eng- 
lish mutton  of  the  choicest  breed  of  that  country,  the  South- 
down, and  showed  that  the  skillful  breeding  and  the  really 
scientific  feeding  of  the  sheep,  had  transformed  the  tough, 
dry  flesh  of  the  original  Spanish  sheep  into  one  of  the 
best  market  meats  in  the  world.  This  point  is  one  to  be  well 
considered  by  our  breeders  of  this  sheep,  for  the  future  pros- 
perity of  the  American  shepherds  is  to  come,  not  from  the 
wool  alone,  but  still  more  from  the  mutton,  which  is  so 
rapidly  coming  into  popular  favor  everywhere;  and  even  in 
the  Southern  States,  in  which  mutton  has  scarcely  ever  been 
thought  of  as  a  food,  and  good  meat  of  this  kind  is  practi- 
cally as  unpopular  as  it  is  poor  and  undesirable  in  quality. 

It  is  one  of  the  good  qualities  of  this  sheep  that  the  fleece 
is  far  more  profitable  for  its  wreight  than  our  native  Merino. 
rlhis  is  due  to  the  absence  of  the  excessive  quantity  of  yolk 
and  gum  in  the  wool.  The  result  of  this  of  course  is  to  in- 
crease the  proportion  of  actual  wool  in  the  fleece.  Fleeces  of 
nearly  fifty  pounds  weight— this  of  course  as  taken  from  the 
sheep—are  by  no  means  surprising;  such  a  weight  of  course 
is  the  product  of  full  grown  rams,  but  yearlings  have  given 
fifteen  pounds  for  the  first  shearing;  over  twenty-seven  for 
the  second;  thirty-seven  for  the  third;  and  forty-eight  for  the 
fourth.  These  weights  are  not  of  unusually  long  wool  but 
are  due  to  the  actual  density  of  the  wool  on  the  skin,  which 
is  one  of  the  common  features  of  this  sheep. 

There  are  two  other  varieties  of  the  Merino,  or  the  most 
valuable  short  fine-wooled  sheep.  These  are  the  Silesian  and 
the  Saxon  Merinos.  But  as  these  sheep  are  small,  the  fleece 
light,  and  too  fine  for  the  now  prevalent  classes  of  woolen 
goods,  they  are  merely  mentioned  without  going  in  any  way 
into  a  discussion  of  their  special  characteristics.  It  is 
scarcely  probable  that  in  the  present,  and  doubtless  future 
progress  of  our  woolen  manufactures,  we  shall  ever  need  to 
find  the  rearing  of  these  special  fine-wooled  sheep  profitable. 
It  will  be  the  future  business  of  the  shepherd  to  supply 
the  demand  for  mutton,  a  demand  that  is  unquestionably 
bound  to  increase  steadily,  until  we  shall  approach,  if  not 
overtake  and  pass,  the  condition  of  the  sheep  industry  in 


FRENCH    BREEDS.  49 

Great  Britain,  where  there  are  no  less  than  240  sheep  to 
every  square  mile,  or  three  to  every  eight  acres,  while  here 
we  have  but  nine  sheep  to  the  square  mile,  or  one  only  to 
each  seventy  acres. 

With  this  view  in  the  not  fat  distance,  it  is  quite  clear 
that  sheep  that  are  of  no  value  for  mutton  will  never  be 
able  to  compete  with  those  which  supply  our  most  valuable 
manufacturing  industries  with  its  raw  material,  and  when 
mature  for  the  market,  either  as  a  lamb  or  a  mutton,  will 
supply  the  ever-increasing  demand  in  this  direction.  This 
view  is  to  be  always  considered  by  the  American  shephevd 
as  the  basis  of  a  successful  choice  of  the  flock. 

THE  FRENCH  BREEDS. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  facts  in  regard  to  tue 
culture  of  sheep  that  the  most  attention  5s  given  to  breeding 
and  feeding  the  flocks  in  those  countries  in  which  mutton 
is  a  favorite  and  important  article  of  food.  The  English 
people  consume  more  of  this  meat  than  any  other  nation— 
indeed  doubtless  as  much  as  all  other  nations  put  together. 
And  while  the  English  are  beef  eaters  to  a  large  extent, 
yet  .their  mutton  furnishes  more  than  a  half  of  their  flesh 
meat.  The  result  has  been  that  this  nation  has  paid  more 
attention  to  the  breeding  of  sheep  and  have  more  varieties 
than  any  other  nation.  So  that  it  is  the  fact  that  in  furnish- 
ing our  farms  and  ranges  with  flocks  we  are  forced  to  look 
to  Great  Britain,  which  is  England  and  Scotland  combined, 
for  our  stock,  and  also  for  the  replenishing  of  it  with  new 
blood.  It  may  be,  and  doubtless  will  be,  that  in  a  few  years 
more  American  shepherds  will  have  so  far  acclimated  their 
sheep  and  have  so  successfully  bred  them,  and  by  the  exer- 
cise of  such  skill  as  many  of  our  foremost  shepherds  possess 
and  apply  to  their  special  industry,  we  shall  be  able  to  de- 
pend wholly  on  our  native  flocks  for  all  our  breeding  stock 
as  well  as  have  created  such  special  families  as  will  best 
suit  our  climate  and  conditions.  Doubtless  our  system  of 
agriculture  will  iirprcve  under  the  stimulating  effect  of  the 
high  culture  of  our  flocks,  and  thus  the  sheep,  as  the  old 
adage  goes,  will  prove  to  us  that  it  has  a  golden  hoof  by  the 
vast  increase  in  wealth  it  will  secure  to  our  agricultural 
interest. 


50 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


It  will  be  of  interest,  however,  to  know  something  of 
what  is  doing  in  this  line  of  sheep  breeding  and  culture  in 
other  countries,  for  instance  in  France,  where  the  Merino  has 
achieved  a  world-wide  notoriety  for  its  special  value  as  a 
wool  producer,  as  well  as  for  a  very  good  mutton  sheep. 

The  Merino  stands  first  in  France  as  it  does  in  Germany 
and  Spain.  But  on  the  whole  the  rather  stolid  and  careless 
system  of  husbandry  in  those  countries  is  not  well  adapted 
to  enterprise  or  success  in  improving  the  live  stock  of  any 
kind.  But  some  of  the  most  intelligent  French  breeders 


LEICESTER-MERINO  CROSS. 

have  recently  taken  considerable  interest  in  the  improve- 
ment of  their  flocks  by  crossing  on  them  the  English  breeds, 
especially  the  Leicester  and  the  Southdown.  The  former 
cross  with  the  Merino  has  produced  an  excellent  sheep  with 
a  good  carcass  and  a  valuable  fleece,  and  the  produce  of  this 
.cross  is  the  most  popular,  as  it  is  the  most  valuable.  This 
good  work  has  been  done  in  the  best  cultivated  districts  as 
Champagne,  Beauce,  and  Chattillouais.  There  the  best 
farming  in  France  is  to  be  seen,  and  sheep  rearing  is  one  of 
the  most  profitable  parts  of  it.  The  most  common  sheep  of 
these  localities,  however,  is  the  cross  of  the  old  natives  by  the 
French  Merino.  The  produce  of  these  crosses  go  by  the 
name  of  Metis-Merino  or  half-bred  Merino.  The  Merinos 
have  been  crossed  with  tue  English  Leicester  with  the  result 


FRENCH    BREEDS.  51 

of  making  an  excellent  mutton  sheep,  which  was  received 
with  much  favor  as  something  new  to  the  French  people. 
This  cross,  however,  for  want  of  sustaining  by  new  blood 
has  retrograded  and  fallen  into  some  disrepute,  not  the  fault 
of  the  sheep  at  all,  but  for  the  reason  that  the  French  breed- 
ers do  not  possess  the  art  and  skill  of  those  of  England.  It 
should  be  said,  however,  that  as  regards  the  Merino,  especi- 
ally under  the  care  of  the  manager  of  the  Rambouillet  farm, 
this  want  of  skill  finds  a  noted  exception. 

The  French  possess  some  native  long-wooled  sheep,  the 
best  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  localities  of  Normandy, 
Picardy  and  the  Vendeean.  These  sheep,  however,  are 
worthless  as  compared  with  the  English  breeds,  as  they  still 
retain  all  the  ungaiuliness  and  ill  form  of  the  old  races  be- 
fore any  skilled  attempt  was  made  for  their  improvement. 
These  breeds  are  noted  for  their  long  legs  and  thin  thighs- 
all  bare  of  wool,  long  drooping  ears,  and  coarse  thin  wool  on 
their  sides.  But  they  have  the  advantage  of  easy  fattening 
when  fed  for  mutton.  The  American  traveler  who  is  en- 
tertained with  the  gigot,  as  the  leg  is  called,  of  the  native 
flocks  is  ill  satisfied  with  the  dry  and  coarse  meat,  especially 
after  having  been  used  to  the  English  Southdown  or  Lei- 
cester leg.  One  of  the  picturesque  sights  on  the  French 
pastures,  on  the  western  coast  districts,  is  the  shepherds 
mounted  on  high  stilts  guarding  their  flocks  apt  to  get  out 
of  their  sight  behind  the  low  hummocks  or  in  the  frequent 
hollows  of  the  broad  almost  uninhabited  Llandes,  lying  be- 
tween the  considerable  cities  of  Bordeaux  and  Bayonne.  This 
almost  barren  region,  a  waste  of  sandy  land  overgrown  by 
low  bushes  and  coarse  herbage,  among  which  the  lean,  ill- 
conditioned  flocks  of  scraggy-wooled  sheep  range  and  feed, 
is  the  locality  of  wretched  hovels  inhabited  by  a  stunted  race 
of  shepherds  who  clothe  themselves  in  the  skins  of  their 
sheep,  the  legs  of  which  furnish  coverings  for  the  limbs  of 
the  people,  being  drawn  on  when  soft  and  pliable  and 
yet  warm  from  the  stunted  sheep,  and  stay  on  until  they  are 
worn  off,  when  they  are  renewed.  The  skins  also  furnish 
jackets  for  these  picturesque  shepherds,  possibly  such  as 
kept  the  flocks  of  the  patriarchs  in  the  old  days  of  Jacob, 
who  tended  doubtless  in  some  such  manner  the  flocks  of  his 
father-in-law,  and  paid  for  his  wives  in  the  staple  currency 


52  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

of  the  time— sheep  from  his  flock.  It  is  an  amazing  thing  to 
an  American  to  see  such  a  sight  in  this  advanced  age  and 
compare  it  with  what  he  sees  among  the  flocks  of  his  own 
country  or  those  of  England  and  Scotland. 

The  famed  cheese  of  Roquefort,  however,  leads  the 
traveler  in  search  of  information  about  the  sheep  of  this 
country  to  a  somewhat  more  entertaining  sight.  This  is  the 
flocks  of  quite  good  sheep  kept  for  their  milk,  of  which  the 
finest  cheese  in  the  world  is  made,  and  which  brings  in  the 
New  York  stores  one  dollar  a  pound.  The  ewes  are  regu- 
larly milked,  and  having  been  bred  for  this  product,  yield 
quite  a  considerable  quantity  of  rich  milk.  The  sheep's  mUk 
is  rich  in  fat,  having  one  half  more  of  it  than  that  of  a 
cow.  This  sheep  is  kept  and  fed  with  much  care  on  the 
sweet  pastures  of  the  limestone  soil  of  this  noted  locality. 
They  are  a  well  formed  race  with  good  frames,  but  not  noted 
for  their  proclivity  for  wool  bearing. 

At  the  French  agricultural  exhibitions  the  imported 
English  sheep  take  the  first  prizes,  and  the  favored  breeds 
of  them  are  the  Southdowns  and  the  Oxfords,  certainly  prov- 
ing that  the  most  advanced  of  the  French  shepherds  have  at 
least  some  faculty  for  distinguishing  good  sheep  sometimes. 

The  advanced  American  shepherd,  however,  has  not 
much  to  learn  from  the  French  sheep  breeders  except  so  far 
as  to  discover  the  effects  of  ages  of  neglect,  as  well  in  a  few 
instances  the  advantages  of  skillful  breeding.  The  though': 
occurs,  unavoidably,  that  it  is  a  mark  of  the  high  civilization 
of  a  people  to  find  fine  flocks  of  sheep,  as  it  is  equally  to 
find  intelligent  and  skillful  breeders  in  any  country. 

France  has  something  over  twenty-one  million  of  shoop 
of  which  there  are  302.481  rams,  about  thirty  ewes  for  each 
ram,  nearly  4.000.000  wethers,  nearly  as  many  yearling 
lambs,  and  4,700,000  young  lambs,  according  to  the  census 
of  1895,  which  is  the  last  one  published. 

BRITISH  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP. 

The  Merino,  previously  described  as  the  American,  is  the 
only  breed  which  we  can  claim  as  distinctly  a  product  of 
the  energy  and  skill  of  American  breeders.  It  must  be 
taken  into  account  that  to  establish  a  breed,  much  time  is 
required;  a  century  is  short  enough  to  establish  and  firmly 


BRITISH    BREEDS.  53 

fix  a  type  even  011  so  ^impressible  aii  animal  as  a  sheep. 
Consequently  as,  with  the  exception  of  the  Merino,  there  has 
never  been  any  effort  to  make  a  special  acclimatatiou  and 
variation  by  special  treatment  and  culture,  we  are  still  rear- 
ing what  are  essentially  the  foreign  breeds*  and  of  these 
those  native  to  Great  Britain  are  the  kinds  kept  on  this 
continent. 

Thus  in  describing  the  breeds  now  in  the  hands  of 
American  shepherds,  wTef  have  so  far  nothing  by  which  any 
one  of  them  may  be  differentiated  as  in  any  way  American 
by  any  variation.  The  descriptions  of  the  varieties  now  kept 
here,  with  those  of  some  kinds  not  yet  introduced  or  esta)> 
lished  to  any  extent,  which  will  be  given,  very  closely  tally 
with  those  found  in  the  English  live  stock  records,  and  this 
we  choose  to  do  because  so  far  we  have  not  here  departed 
in  any  conspicuous  manner  from  the  real  English  types,  as 
indeed  these  are  yet  our  own  standards,  and  importations 
are  still  making  very  freely  to  maintain  these  types.  It  is 
a  question  sometimes  discussed  by  the  special  live  stock 
journals  here,  if  the  time  has  yet  come  when  we  should 
stop  this  continued  importation  to  restore  some  supposed 
failure  in  quality  of  the  home  bred  sheep  by  deterioration 
due  to  our -dryer  climate  and  our  different  methods  of  feed- 
ing. We  do  not  join  in  this  thought  at  all,  but  have  the  firm- 
est possible  belief  that  as  with  the  American  Merino  so 
with  the  other  breeds  of  foreign  sources,  the  time  will  come 
when  our  breeders  may  safely  depend  on  our  own  flocks  for 
the  sustentatiou  of  our  adopted  breeds,  and  put  them  on  as 
excellent  a  basis  as  we  have  put  our  Merino.  This  is  not, 
however,  to  be  done  in  a  day,  nor  is  its  work  to  be  lightly 
undertaken,  but  there  are  skillful  and  scientific  breeders  on 
this  side  of  the  Atlantic  who  will  in  time  take  this  work  in 
hand,  and  due  encouragement  should  be  given  to  their  efforts 
to  establish  true  American  breeds  by  the  full  acclimatation 
of  our  present  breeds,  and  others,  whfch  it  is  the  intention 
to  show  may  be  yet  added  to  our  stocks.  In  the  meantime 
we  shall  take  advantage  of  the  good  work  of  the  English 
breeders  whose  best  specimens  of  sheep  will  yet  find  an 
acceptable  market  on  this  side  of  the  ocean,  and  still  further 
furnish  us  material  which  in  time  we  shall  be  sending  back 
across  the  ocean  as  welcome  contrbutions  of  American  skill 


54  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

and  enterprise,  lor  the  benefit  of  the  old  flocks,  as  we  have 
done  already  in  regard  to  our  finest  specimens  of  cattle  and 
horses. 

SHORT-WOOL  SHEEP. 

The  Southdown  is  the  generally  accepted  type  of  a  mut- 
ton and  short  clothing  wool  sheep.  It  is  moreover  worthy  of 
the  first  place  in  this  category,  for  the  reason  that  it  has 
been  the  sire  of  all  other  so-called  Down  breeds,  crossed 
on  various  old-fashioned  races  which  had  become  obsolete, 
and  indeed  unprofitable,  in  competition  with  the  finer  flocks 
of  the  eminent  breeders  who  had  brought  their  sheep  to 
the  highest  degree  of  perfection.  It  is  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful sheep  existing;  its  smooth  even  body,  its  round  clean 
barrel,  its  short  legs,  fine  head,  and  broad  saddle,  with  its 
sweet,  tender,  never  over-fat  meat,  make  it  especially  the 
ornament  of  a  well  kept  lawn  on  any  gentleman's  country 
place  as  well  as  the  profitable  stock  of  the  farmer  or  special 
breeder.  Its  mutton  has  long  been  held  in  the  highest  consid- 
eration, and  although  it  has  some  active  rivals  in  general 
popularity,  it  will  be  very  severely  missed  if  it  were  to  fall 
into  neglect.  In  breeding  it  is  always  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  desired  type  to  go  back  to  the  original 
sires  at  times,  to  renew  or  strengthen  certain  points  of  ex- 
cellence in  the  cross  breed.  And  as  the  Southdown  has  been 
the  sire  of  so  many  of  our  best  breeds,  it  will  always  be  de- 
sirable that  this  breed  should  be  kept  in  reserve  for  future 
usefulness.  For  a  farm  sheep  fed  for  domestic  use  and  for 
the  home  supply  of  wool,  as  well  as  for  its  other  pleasing 
and  profitable  qualities,  this  should  be  well  thought  of  among 
other  claimants  for  general  favor.  The  wealthy  proprietor 
of  a  farm  or  country  place  might  always  have  a  flock  of 
Southdowns  on  his  lawrn  for  ornament,  and  as  well  for  the 
supply  of  his  hospitable  table.  If  this  breed  is  ever  suffered 
to  become  extinct  it  will  be  a  most  serious  loss  in  the  future1; 
for  it  has  many  valuable,  profitable  points.  Its  lamb  from 
a  Merino  or  a  common  native  ewe  is  the  most  popular 
for  the  market.  The  market  men  recognize  its  plumpness, 
its  light  offal,  its  popular  black  face,  and  its  tenderness, 
juiciness,  and  fatness;  all  indispensable  requirements  for  the 
table.  This  cross-bred  lamb  has  been  sold  by  the  author  for 


56  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

ten  dollars  a  head  for  the  earliest,  and  never  less  than  three 
dollars  when  under  three  mouths  old.  It  is  not  the 
size  but  the  quality  of  the  market  lamb  which  regulates  the 
price  of  it  to  the  breeder.  We  all  know  how  difficult  it  is  to 
change  a  popular  taste  and  start  it  in  a  new  channel;  and  % 
this  old  popularity  of  the  black  or  smutty  faces,  and  their 
plump  round  carcasses,  will  not  be  easily  altogether  done 
away  with. 

A  well  fed  Southdown  should  weigh  18  Ibs.  the  quarter 
at  a  year  old,  which  is  near  the  popular  margin  as  to  weight; 
at  two  years  old  a  fat  wether  will  easily  make  33  to  35  Ibs. 
to  the  quarter,  butchers'  weight;  and  yield  two-thirds  its 
live  weight  in  marketable  meat. 

There  is  always  a  market  for  the  wool,  which  is  one  of 
the  standard  staples  for  flannels  and  clothing  fabrics.  And  it 
may  be  said  in  favor  of  this  once  most  common  sheep,  that 
it  is  one  of  the  most  easily  kept  of  all  breeds.  Its  native 
home  on  the  thin  chalk  downs  of  Southern  England,  of 
which  the  herbage  is  thin  and  short,  but  very  sweet  and 
nutritious,  indicates  the  kind  of  lands  on  which  this  sheep 
will  do  its  best  as  to  profit. 

THE  SHROPSHIRE. 

The  Shropshire  shares  the  popularity  of  its  chief  progeni- 
tor, the  Southdown,  whose  dark  face  and  legs  it  inherits. 
The  original  type,  the  Morfe  Common  sheep,  had  a  dark 
spotted  face  and  horns.  It  was  a  small  sheep,  yielding  a 
fleece  of  not  over  two  pounds,  and  making  a  dressed  weight 
of  eleven  to  fourteen  pounds  the  quanter.  This  sheep  wras 
crossed  by  Southdown  rams  which  quickly  gave  an  im- 
proved quality,  but  the  size  was  not  profitable.  The  Leices- 
ter sire  was  then  introduced  which  gave  the  desired  size  and 
weight,  and  increased  the  length  and  quantity  of  the  fleece. 
By  very  skillful  breeding  the  cross  has  been  brought  to  a 
fixed  type  without  any  indication  of  reversion  in  any  way. 
It  may  now  be  considered  as  an  established  breed,  and  able 
to  support  its  present  high  character  as  a  farmer's  sheep, 
or  for  the  range  flocks.  It  is  one  of  the  hardiest  sheep, 
except  perhaps  as  to  the  unusually  early  lambs  which  at 
times  may  need  some  protection  when  coming  in  advance  of 
the  season. 


w 

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Ill 
lit 


58  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

Its  mutton  is  excellent,  but  like  that  of  all  other  sheep 
it  is  affected  by  the  food,  and  for  its  best  quality  should  be ' 
finished  on  such  succulent  food  as  turnips,  or  mangels,  but 
best,  of  all  on  sugar  beets.    It  lives  well  on  thin  pasture  and 
is  easily  fatted  for  market. 

Its  fleece  is  longer  and  a  little  coarser  than  that  of  the 
Southdown,  and  that  of  a  good  ordinary  flock  of  ewes  should 
weigh  seven  or  eight  pounds  to  the  fleece.  Its  average 
dressed  weight  is  twenty  to  twenty-two  pounds  to  the  quar- 
ter, when  finished  in  the  best  manner. 

The  Shropshire's  face  is  longer  and  larger  than  that  of 
the  Southdown,  the  nose  is  slightly  protuberant  (Roman)  in 
form,  the  ears  a  little  larger.  The  face  and  legs  are  blackish 
brown  or  sometimes  mottled  with  gray.  White  spots  on  these 
places  are  objectionable  as  considered  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  standard  of  excellence,  and  black  spots  on  the  body 
should  be  held  as  a  disqualification,  especially  for  breeding 
animals.  Thin  ears  are  indications  of  tenderness  of  consti- 
tution, and  should  be  objected  to  by  those  who  desire  to 
maintain  the  stamina  of  the  breed.  A  somewhat  run-down 
and  neglected  flock  has  been  immediately  restored  by  a  new 
cross  of  the  Southdown.  The  high  character  of  this  breed 
is  showrn  by  its  appearance  all  over  the  U.  S.  and  Canada. 

The  fleece  should  be  wholly  free  from  black  hairs,  line 
in  staple,  somewhat  longer  than  that  of  the  Southdown, 
and  closely  set  on  a  clear  pinky  skin.  Breeding  for  increased 
weight  of  fleece  has  resulted  in  producing  coarse  wool,  and 
in  selecting  rams  the  fineness  and  close  setting  of  the  fleece 
are  to  be  considered  before  mere  weight.  This  breed  is 
essentially  one  for  the  farm  flock,  while  it  is  duly  hardy 
and  a  fit  rustler  for  the  ranges.  It  has  a  strong  constitution, 
good  feet,  and  is  especially  free  from  the  common  diseases 
of  the  flocks, 

THE   HAMPSHIRE   DOWN. 

This  is  a  cross  breed,  of  which  the  preponderating  charac- 
teristic is  its  early  maturity.  Sir  John  B.  Lawes,  in  his  most 
instructive  experiments  in  feeding,  proved  that  the  Hamp- 
shire made  more  weight  of  carcass  from  the  same  quantity 
and  kind  of  food,  than  the  hitherto  unsurpassed  Southdown. 
The  principal  point  in  favor  of  this  breed  is  its  early  matur- 


60  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP 

ity,  and  this  is  of  the  greatest  importance  iii  these  days, 
\vheii  time  for  feeding  is  the  inaiii  element  of  profit.  As  will 
be  observed  later,  when  the  science  and  art  of  feeding  will 
be  discussed,  it  is  far  cheaper  to  feed  a  young  animal  than 
an  old  one.  For  every  part  of  the  young  animal  is  growing; 
tho  bone;  vital  organs;  the  whole  of  the  carcass,  flesh  and 
fat;  all  gain  by  the  food;  and  the  system  is  more  amenable 
to  improvement  in  a  young  animal  than  in  a  mature  one; 
less  of  the  food  being  lost  in  mere  existence,  as  compared 
with  growth.  Thus  a  quick  growing  animal  in  the  early  part 
of  its  life  is  the  most  cheaply  fed,  for  the  cost  of  the  food 
and  attention  are  the  least  for  the  most  increase  in  weight. 

The  whole  system  of  breeding  this  sheep  has  been  to 
reach  this  end,  and  the  exceedingly  hardy  original  stock— a 
large  horned  sheep  which  ran  at  large  on  the  open  downs  of 
Central  England  so  far  back  as  the  time  of  the  old  Romans, 
when  they  occupied  the  island,  and  which  supplied  the 
fleeces  for  the  first  woolen  factory  established  at  Winchester 
during  the  Roman  o-ccupation  about  twenty  centuries  ago— 
was  naturally  fitted  to  establish  a  breed  with  strong  consti- 
tution and  ability  for  improvement.  This  breed  has  re- 
mained one  of  the  old  standards  since  that  early  time,  and 
by  its  survival  to  within  eighty  years  ago,  when  improve- 
ment first  began,  proves  its  fitness  to  survive  in  its  hardy  con- 
stitution and  its  intrinsic  value  as  a  wool  bearer,  for  which 
it  was  originally  valued. 

The  first  effort  made  in  its  improvement  was  the  use  of 
Southdown  rams  for  crossing  on  the  native  Hampshire 
ewes.  The  ancient  race  had  a  large  bony  narrow  carcass, 
large  heads,  prominent  Roman  noses,  long  curly  horns,  the 
carcass  was  high  at  the  withers,  narrow  and  sharp  ridged 
along  the  back,  but  it  was  the  largest  short  wooled  sheep  in 
existence. 

To  make  of  this  ungainly  animal  one  profitable  to  the 
farmer  for  its  flesh  and  fleece,  was  a  problem  to  be  solved 
by  the  eminent  improvers  of  live  stork  of  all  kinds  in  those 
—now  a  century  old— days.  It  was  solved  as  others  have 
been  by  the  use  of  the  short-legged,  broad-backed,  thick-set, 
close-wocled  Southdown,  a  very  anti-type  of  what  this  old 
Hampshire  then  was.  The  first  crosses  were  effective  to 
gain  the  points  the  original  breeders  of  the  Hampshire 


2  6 


,_    > 

231 
2  •«  a 
B  30 


ai 


62  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

Downs  wanted.  The  cross  was  repeated  again  and  again, 
the  native  prepotency  of  the  old  race  striving  bard  for  pre- 
ponderance; but  the  better  bred  blood  of  the  improving  race 
in  time  prevailed,  and  after  many  crosses  with  the  South- 
down the  horns  disappeared,  the  \vhite  face  was  changed  to  a 
black  one,  the  frame,  loose  and  angular,  was  brought  by 
degrees  to  a  compact  body,  with  a  broad  back,  round  bar- 
rel, short  legs,  and  superior  quality  of  flesh,  with  a  quick 
feeding  habit,  and  an  ability  to  make  the  earliest  growth 
and  the  most  salable  weight,  both  of  carcass  and  fleece, 
for  the  food  consumed.  The  ancient  colossal  head  with  its 
bulging  nose  has  been  changed,  for  one  of  pleasing  propor- 
tions, yet  strong  and  indicating  a  vigorous  and  hardy  nerv- 
ous constitution.  The  brain  is  capacious  and  the  body  is 
evenly  molded,  deep  and  broad  on  the  back,  wide  between 
the  forelegs,  and  full  behind,  a  model  carcass  for  the 
but  cher,  and  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  breeder. 

Its  hardiness  is  unquestionable.  It  is  at  home  on  the 
Southern  old  field,  on  the  best  cultivated  farms  of  the  East 
and  West,  and  away  on  the  Northwestern  ranges  it  sustains 
itself  as  a  triumph  of  the  breeders'  art. 

Before  the  late  war  between  the  North  and  South  a  lot  of 
this  breed  had  been  imported  into  Virginia,  and  were  flourish- 
ing. The  misfortunes  of  the  strife  tended  to  scatter  the 
flocks  which  became  distributed  over  the  Southern  States. 
Some  black  faces  found  in  the  N.  Carolina  mountains  were 
traced  back  to  these  Virginia  flocks,  and  the  evidences  of 
the  value  of  this  breed  for  crossing  on  the  thin,  ill-formed, 
unprofitable,  native  sheep,  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  still 
black  faces  of  well  farmed  thrifty  sheep  scattered  here  and 
there  among  the  elevated  Southern  pastures. 

This  breed  is  well  adapted  for  improving  the  small 
ligl.it  bodied  native  ewes.  It  is  commonly  thought  that  to 
use  a  large  bodied  ram  on  these  small  light  ewes  is  bad 
practice,  for  the  alleged  reason  that  the  large  size  of  the  re- 
sulting lamb  will  endanger  the  small  ewes,  and  be  bom 
with  difficulty. 

This,  as  is  stated  at  more  length  in  the  chapter  on  breed- 
ing, is  not  based  on  scientific  principles,  or  on  common  sense 
and  experience.  For  the  male  merely  contributes  the  vital 
germ  of  life  to  its  offspring,  with  it  habit  of  growth  and  assim- 


64  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP 

ilation  of  food  after  birth;  the  ewe  gives  only  the  life  and 
its  own  substance  to  its  offspring,  and  while  the  lamb  is  of 
the  normal  size  for  the  ewe,  it  has  the  ability  of  its  sire  to 
grow  and  turn  more  food  than  its  dam  ever  could  do  into 
growth.  There  is  no  good  reason  therefore  why  a  well  ored 
Hampshire  ram  should  not  be  used  for  the  improvement  of 
the  smallest  of  our  common  sheep.  Its  natural  history  goes 
to  prove  its  fitness  for  this  use  under  certain  circumstances, 
which  make  its  use  desirable  for  this  purpose. 

The  recognized  points  of  excellence  of  this  breed  are  its 
rather  massive  head  with  its  prominent  Roman  nose,  and  the 
absence  of  horns  or  rudiments  of  them,  as  slugs,  snags  or 
buds.  The  face  and  legs  are  deep  black,  the  fleece  is  free 
from  all  black  spots  and  is  close  and  fine  all  over  the  body. 
The  skin  is  pink  under  the  wool.  The  ears  are  somewhat 
pointed  as  compared  with  those  of  the  Southdown,  of  a 
dark  mouse  color  behind,  and  free  from  light  specks  or 
mottling.  The  forequarters  are  broad  and  the  breadth  of 
carcass  should  be  maintained  down  to  the  rump.  As  this 
is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  faults  of  the  breed,  it  is  to 
be  guarded  against  in  choosing  rams  for  the  increase  of  the 
pure  bred  flocks. 

THE  SUFFOLK. 

The  Suffolk  sheep  has  only  recently  come  into  promi- 
nence as  a  breed.  It  is  only  since  1886  that  it  was  given  a 
class  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  exhibitions,  but  since  that 
time  the  breeders  have  formed  an  association,  and  by  strong 
efforts  have  brought  their  sheep  into  notice.  This  sheep  is 
similar  in  many  respects  to  the  Hampshire,  but  is  not  so  com- 
pact in  form,  and  the  short  black  hair  on  the  face  extends 
over  the  head  which  is  thus  devoid  of  wool.  It  is  as  yet  in 
process  of  formation  as  a  breed,  and  has  its  history  to  mnko. 
It  is,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  illustration  given,  a  neat,  well 
formed  sheep,  with  a  good  carcass  and  something  of  the 
Hampshire  type  about  it. 

THE  OXFORD  DOWN. 

This  sheep  is  a  double  cross,  being  made  up  of  the 
Hampshire  ewe,  a  distinctly  cross  bred  animal,  with  the 
Cotswold  ram.  It  is  the  largest  of  this  class  of  sheep,  ex- 
celling the  Hampshire  in  si/e  at  the  same  age.  It  is  a  later 


66  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

sheep  to  briiig  lambs,  so  that  generally  it  suffers  undeserved 
detraction  on  account  of  the  lighter  weight  of  the  lainbs 
at  the  exhibitions,  as  compared  with  the  earlier  dropped 
Hainpshires.  The  carcass  weighs  twenty  to  twenty-four 
pounds  the  quarter  at  a  year  or  fourteen  months  old. 

This  sheep  has  not  so  dark  a  face  as  the  Hampshire,  this 
being  somewhat  mottled,  nor  is  the  shoulder  so  broad  as 
in  the  Hampshire.  It  has  not  the  evenness  of  its  close  com- 
petitor, showing  a  less  well  defined  type,  and  thus  needing 
longer  breeding  with  careful  selection  of  the  rams  used, 
as  well  as  of  the  ewes.  Lambs  are  bred  by  the  English 
farmers  by  crossing  these  ewes  with  a  Hampshire  ram,  for 
the  purpose  of  darkening  the  face,  and  the  reverse  cross 
is  used  when  the  face  is  satisfactory  but  the  form  is  not. 
Then  a  Cotswoid  ram  is  used.  Sometimes  a  Shropshire  ram 
is  chosen  and  the  result  of  this  cross  is  a  much  improved 
carcass,  broad  along  the  back,  and  with  better  hind  quarters. 
When  well  selected  rams  are  used  this  breed  is  one  of  the 
most  profitable  for  mutton,  and  as  the  fleece  is  an  excellent 
worsted  wool  and  weighs  seven  pounds  on  an  average,  it  is 
a  valuable  addition  to  our  adopted  breeds.  It  is  one  of  the- 
best  farm  sheep,  although  it  has  a  good  reputation  for  range 
purposes.  For  this  it  is  not  to  be  thought  that  it  is  the  pur- 
pose of  the  shepherd  to  make  a  flock  of  this  breed;  on  the 
other  hand  the  rams  of  this  and  other  breeds  are  procured 
to  cross  on  the  common  native  or  grade  sheep,  and  thus  pro- 
duce a  high  grade  wrhose  value  is  easily  doubled  by  this  use 
of  good  rams.  It  is  thus  a  matter  for  the  shepherd  to  select 
the  rams  he  may  find  the  most  valuable  for  this  use,  and  the 
Oxford  Down  is  well  worthy  of  regard  for  this  purpose. 
The  sheep  shown  in  the  illustration  was  the  champion  of  all 
breeds  in  the  two  shear  class  at  the  Oxfordshire  show  of  last 
year. 

THE  DOKSET. 

This  sheep  in  its  native  country  goes  by  the  name  or 
class  of  the  Somerset  and  Dorset  Horned  breed.  Of  late 
years  this  breed  has  become  exceedingly  popular  on  this 
continent,  mostly  however  for  its  special  fecundity  and -early 
breeding  habit.  Indeed  it  is  so  prolific  that  two  lambing  sea- 
sons in  the  year  are  possible  under  the  right  management. 
It  Is  a  white  faced  sheep  with  a  close  short  fleece  used 


II 

a  S 


I 


O  g 


68  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP 

for  flannel  goods,  and  such  clothing  fabrics  as  require  such 
a  material.  It  is  thus  a  useful  sheep  for  its  wool  alone,  of 
which  the  fleece  will  weigh  four  or  five  pounds.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  southern  part  of  England  in  which  the  mild, 
delicious  climate  permits  tender  plants  such  as  the  fuchsia, 
the  heliotrope  and  the  geranium  to  bloom  the  whole  year 
round,  covering  the  picturesque  cottages  with  their  brilliant 
bloom,  while  the  northern  parts  of  the  country  are  covered 
with  snow. 

It  is  solidly  built,  having  a  broad  back  and  short  legs; 
it  has  a  tuft  of  wool  on  its  forehead,  and  ewes  are  horned 
as  well  as  the  rams.  It  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the 
English  breeds,  and  has  been  preserved  in  its  original  purity 
from  a  remote  period.  Its  breeders  claim  that  it  was  exist- 
ing before  the  Roman 'invasion,  more  than  two  thousand 
years  ago.  But  of  late  it  has  been  carefully  improved  by  the 
selection  of  the  best  rams  and  the  diligent  search  for  the 
most  prolific  ewes,  of  whom  it  is  not  at  all  rare  that  the 
breeder  may  obtain  four  or  even  five  lambs  in  the  year. 
It  is  larger  than  the  Southdown  and  although  most  esteemed 
for  its  prolificacy  yet  its  mutton  is  above  the  average  of  its 
class  of  short-wooled  sheep.  The  wethers,  under  good  feed- 
ing, reach  a  dressed  weight  of  twenty  pounds  the  quarter; 
the  forequarters  however  are  apt  to  be  light.  They  are  a 
hardy  sheep  and  since  their  introduction  here  have  proved 
to  be  well  suited  to  our  cold  Winters  and  warm  Summers. 
They  have  also  proved  to  be  well  adapted  to  the  ranges, 
being  excellent  travelers  and  rustlers. 

Their  most  prominent  characteristic,  however,  is  their 
unrivalled  fecundity.  Taking  the  ram  in  May  they  rear 
lambs  ready  for  the  market  in  the  holidays,  and  breeding 
again  soon  after  dropping  the  lambs  bring  another  or  other 
lambs  in  March  or  April,  and  often  bringing  twins  and  some- 
times triplets,  thus  increase  very  fast,  besides  making  a  good 
profit  for  the  lambs  sold.  It  is  the  usual  custom  to  breed  tho 
ewes  to  a  Southdown  or  Hampshire  ram,  by  which  the  mar- 
ket lamb  has  a  black  face  which  is  generally  preferred  by 
the  butchers.  No  other  breed  of  sheep  is  so  prolific  as 
this  under  skillful  management. 

The  breed  is  sustained  by  breeding  the  ewes  to  one  of 
their  own  race  for  the  increase  of  the  flock,  and  the  long 


S 


2s 


rt 

a  g 


70  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

experience  of  the  breeders  may  be  taken  as  a  complete 
contradiction  of  the  naturalist's  belief,  to  the  effect,  that 
crossing  a  pure  bred  animal  outside  of  its  own  kind  is  apt 
to  produce  diversion  and  make  the  breed  impure  by  the 
effect  of  the  cross  on  the  character  of  the  ewe.  The  long 
peculiar  history  of  the  Dorset  goes  to  show  that,  with  sheep 
certainly,  the  outcross  does  in  no  way  vitiate  the  blood  of 
the  females  so  bred. 

The  peculiar  system  of  rearing  these  market  or  house 
lambs  will  be  especially  noticed  in  another  chapter. 

The  Somerset  sheep  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  Dorset 
and  differs  from  it  in  having  a  pink  nose,  that  of  the  Dorset 
being  white.  The  wool  is  also  a  little  longer,  and  the  lambs 
are  heavier.  This  breed  has  however  the  same  special  pecu- 
liarities, being  used  for  rearing  early  lambs,  which  are  fatted 
and  often  sold  with  the  ewes  at  the  same  time. 

A  smaller  variety  of  the  Dorset  is  the  Portland  sheep, 
reared  on  the  island  of  Portland,  where  not  more  than  a 
few  thousand  are  kept,  principally  for  their  sweet  and  del'- 
cate  mutton,  which  brings  a  sufficiently  high  price  to  pay 
for  rearing  this  small  sheep,  which  do  not  weigh  over  ten  or 
twelve  pounds  the  quarter,  when  fat  and  fully  matured. 

THE    LONG-WOOL    BREEDS. 

The  Long-wool  sheep  are  without  horns,  except  in  some  of 
the  mountain  breeds,  and  one  of  these  is  fast  losing  this  un- 
necessary appendage,  once  needed  doubtless  when  this  de- 
fense against  the  wolves  and  foxes  was  indispensable.  The 
most  conspicuous  of  this  class  of  sheep  is 

THE  LINCOLN. 

Sheep  are  especially  influenced  by  their  environments. 
This  is  clearly  proved  by  the  large  number  of  special  breeds 
existing  in  the  small  extent  of  the  British  Islands,  in  which 
there  are  more  sheep,  and  a  greater  variety  of  them,  than  in 
any  other  country  in  the  world  as  compared  with  it  in  area. 
The  English  are  a  mutton  eating  people,  and  enjoy  an  enor- 
mous trade  in  woolen  goods,  having  the  great  monopoly,  as  it 
were,  of  the  world's  markets  for  this  invaluable  product. 
This  has  existed  for  hundreds  of  years,  nay  it  is  nearly  two 
thousand  years  since  the  first  woolen  factory  was  in  opera- 
tion in  that  busy  country.  Consequently  we  cannot  have  a 


si 

Qce 


72  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

better  example  before  us  of  the  desirability  of  a  large 
variety  of  sheep,  whether  for  mutton,  of  which  we  are  be- 
coming large  and  larger  consumers  every  year,  or  for  wool 
of  which  we  are  working  up  more  and  more  continually. 

The  Lincoln  sheep  is  a  growth  of  many  years'  culture  in 
a  special  district  of  England  known  as  the  Lincolnshire  fens, 
and  the  adjoining  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Cambridgeshire. 
In  this  district  agriculture  has  been  carried  on  under  the 
highest -system,  the  growth  of  roots,  and  the  accompanying 
flocks  fed  on  this  crop,  having  advanced  the  agricultural 
methods  so  conspicuously,  that  what  is  known  as  the  Nor- 
folk system  is  held  to  be  the  highest  type  of  farming.  Hence 
it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  sheep  of  this  locality  should  be 
something  beyond  the  common  line. 

For  centuries  there  has  been  a  Lincoln  breed  of  sheep 
which  surpassed  in  size  all  other  breeds.  Its  fleece  also 
surpassed  all  others  in  length  of  fiber  and  weight.  It  was 
a  great  coarse  animal,  the  wool  swept  the  ground  on  which 
it  fed,  and  an  average  fleece  weighed  twelve  to  fifteen 
pounds,  which  a  century  ago  was  phenomenal  as  compared 
with  other  breeds.  The  carcass  was  very  fat  inside,  and 
made  the  then  highly  esteemed  chops— having  three  fingers 
of  fat  on  the  meat.  But,  as  might  be  easily  thought,  this  big 
coarse  animal  was  not  a  profitable  one  after  the  work  of 
Bakewell  with  his  improved  Leicesters  was  about  complete. 
The  intelligent  breeders  of  the  old  Lincolns  at  once  adopted 
Bakewell's  work,  and  improved  their  flocks  by  crossing  the 
New  Leicesters  on  them.  Thus  the  Leicesters  took  the  same 
place  with  the  Long-wools  that  was  taken  by  the  South- 
downs  among  the  Short-wools.  This  crossing  has  changed 
the  old  Lincoln  from  its  former  condition  of  a  coarse  form, 
with  flat  sides  and  hollow  flanks,  and  big  legs  and  feet, 
to  one  of  handsome  proportions,  with  finer  wool,  having  good 
luster,  and  highly  estimated  for  the  worsteds  class  of  goods. 
Its  fleece  has  long  been  the  material  of  which  the  bunting 
of  the  national  flags  of  all  countries  have  been  manufactured 
on  account  of  its  great  strength  and  its  ability  to  withstand 
the  battle  and  the  breeze.  Our  own  Stars  and  Stripes  have 
this  kind  of  wool  for  the  raw  material,  and  it  is  always 
in  demand  for  braids  and  other  manufactures  which  call  for 
this  special  material,  long  fiber  and  great  strength. 


o 

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§2 


o> 


- 


74  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

The  infusion  of  Leicester  blood  refilled  the  great  coarse 
animal,  but  still  left  its  produce  the  largest  sheep  in  exist- 
ence, the  quarters  of  which  weigh  when  fully  finished  for 
market  thirty-seven  pounds,  and  the  fleece  often  twenty- 
four  pounds.  These  weights  are  of  course  above  the  aver- 
age, but  they  go  to  show  what  type  this  sheep  is  of. 

Necessarily  such  a  sheep  is  fitted  for  the  highest  culture 
of  the  laud,  in  which  root  crops  take  the  most  important 
place.  In  the  United  States,  however,  the  silo  takes  the 
place  of  the  roots,  to  a  large  extent,  but  yet  roots  and  big 
sheep  and  heavy  fleeces  will  always  go  together. 

But  with  our  vast  ranges  we  have  occasion  and  space 
for  this  grand  sheep  for  crossing  on  the  common  natives. 
This  has  been  done  to  some  extent  in  suitable  circumstances, 
with  much  advantage,  and  when  the  shepherds  will  abandon 
the  unwise  and  wholly  wrong  belief  common  among 
them,  that  a  big  ram  is  not  suitable  for  crossing  on  little 
ewes  on  account  of  the  supposed  great  size  of  the  lamb 
thus  produced,  this  breed  will  be  extensively  used  for  this 
purpose,  producing  a  valuable  mutton  carcass  and  a  most 
useful  cross-bred  wool.  It  is  not,  however,  a  part  of  wisdom 
to  suppose  that  this  cross,  violent  as  it  is,  will  be  the  founda- 
tion for  a  new  race  having  the  excellencies  of  the  Lincoln- 
shire. This  subject,  however,  is  too  important  to  be  more 
than  suggested  here;  it  lies  at  the  foundation  of  the  science 
of  breeding,  and  must  be  left  for  consideration  hereafter. 

This  breed  is  white  faced,  and  has  a  conspicuous  tuft 
on  the  forehead,  which  is  the  most  marked  indication  of  the 
old  blood  in  it.  The  head  is  massive  but  not  coarse,  the  nose 
is  somewhat  arched  (Roman)  and  bare  of  wool.  The  brisket 
is  full  and  deep,  the  body  round  and  well  proportioned,  arid 
while  it  is  a  heavy  sheep  it  has  no  coarseness  about  it.  It 
does  not  come  up  to  its  old  weights  either  of  carcass  or 
fleece,  but  its  quality  is  improved  by  the  refinement  it  has 
undergone  through  many  years  of  continuous  careful  breed- 
ing, making  it  a  desirable  sheep  for  its  mutton  and  wool, 
and  for  the  improvement  of  the  common  flocks. 

THE   ROMNEY    MARSH. 

It  seems  at  first  thought  that  a  marsh  sheep  should  be 
a  misnomer.  But  sheep  are  made  for  every  condition,  even 


76  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

L 

for  pasturing  on  marshes.  And  thus  the  Romney  Marsh 
sheep  is  a  habitant  of  the  extensive  salt  marshes  of  South- 
eastern England  in  the  County  of  Kent.  Considering  that 
we  have  many  millions  of  acres  of  similar  lands  on  our  sea 
coasts;  this  breed  is  by  no  means  to  be  omitted  in  this  recapit- 
ulation. Indeed  it  has  been  acclimated  and  kept  with  suc- 
cess on  the  coast  lands  of  New  England  and  New  Jersey. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  deadly  parasite,  the  fluke,  would  for- 
bid the  keeping  of  sheep  on  marsh  lands;  but  this  parasite, 
the  cause  of  the  liver  rot  of  sheep,  is  never  found  on  salt 
marshes,  as  its  common  bearer,  in  which  it  passes  one  stage 
of  its  existence,  inhabits  only  fresh  wrater.  It  is  related  in 
form  and  character  to  the  old  Lincoln,  being  a  long  WTOO! 
sheep  with  a  very  closely  coated  fleece.  As  with  the  Lincoln 
it  has  been  greatly  modified  and  improved  by  infusion  of 
Leicester  blood.  Like  the  Lincoln,  too,  its  home  is  on  rich 
pastures,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  for  seven  of  these  sheep, 
with  as  many  wethers,  to  be  kept  on  each  acre  of  a  pasture. 
This  fact  should  be  well  considered  by  our  readers,  for  fine 
sheep  and  a  profitable  flock  must  go  with  full  feed,  and  the 
farm  sheep  is  always  a  type  of  the  culture  of  Ilio  land  on 
which  it  is  kept. 

By  the  crossing,  it  has  been  reduced  in  size  and  improved 
in  form,  wrhile  its  fleece  has  been  refined.  It  is  a  white  faced 
breed  mostly,  having  a  forelock  like  the  Lincoln,  which  it 
much  resembles.  It  is  an  extremely  hairy  sheep,  being  rarely 
house-fed  in  the  whiter,  pasturing  on  the  marshes  and 
meadows  in  all  weathers  through  all  the  storms  of  a  sea 
coast  exposure.  It  is  thus  one  of  the  breeds  which  may  be 
adopted  for  range  flocks,  of  which  hardiness  is  a.  desirable 
characteristic.  It  is  a  profitable  sheep  for  its  fine  mutton 
and  its  fleece,  valuable  for  worsted  goods. 

THE   COTSWOLl). 

The  Cotswold  sheep  has  an  interesting  history.  It  is  the 
oldest  breed  of  sheep  of  which  there  is  any  satisfactory  rec- 
ord. Its  history  goes  back  for  at  least  three  centuries,  and 
beyond  that,  while  it  has  no  written  records,  yet  it  has  been 
known  that  the  long  wool  yielded  by  this  sheep  was  in  high 
favor  long  before  the  name  of  the  sheep  which  produced  it 
was  a  matter  of  notoriety.  This  long  pedigree  explains  the 


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78  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

reason  for  the  great  natural  prepotency  of  the  raius  of  this 
breed  in  the  production  of  the  various  crosses  which  have 
been  made  by  the  Cotswold  ranis.  It  is  one  of  the  hardiest 
of  all  breeds,  having  been  reared  for  this  long  period  in  a 
poor  exposed  district,  and  while  it  changes  character  when 
removed  to  more  favorable  surroundings,  yet  it  is  one  of  the 
hardiest  sheep  for  the  range.  It  is  the  next  largest  sheep  to 
the  Lincoln.  It  is  a  good  mutton  sheep  and  has  a  good 
fleece  of  rather  coarse  wool,  valuable  for  heavy  goods.  The 
flesh  is  not  so  fine  as  that  of  the  Down  breeds,  but  is  yet  ex- 
cellent for  the  butchers'  use  when  not  over  fifteen  months 
old,  when  it  fattens  readily  and  makes  twenty-five  pounds 
to  the  quarter.  Its  old  size  has  been  somewhat  reduced,  to 
conform  to  the  present  demand  for  lighter  carcasses.  The 
fleece,  too,  is  not  so  heavy  as  it  used  to  be,  when  it  often 
weighed  12  Ibs.  or  over  of  wool.  It  has>  been  crossed  with 
advantage  with  the  Leicester,  yielding  then  better  mutton 
and  a  finer  staple  of  lustrous  wool,  in  good  demand  for 
heavy  goods,  and  especially  of  the  coarser  kinds  of  women's 
dress  fabrics.  One  of  the  best  of  its  crosses  is  with  the 
smaller  Down  breeds.  It  has  been  used  with  much  success 
to  cross  on  the  Merino,  the  lambs  of  this  cross  making  fine 
market  stock,  being  large  and  fat,  and  the  full  grown  cross 
breeds  making  fine  market  mutton  and  a  useful  fleece.  Sir 
J.  B.  Lawes  in  his  experiments  in  feeding  sheep  of  various 
breeds,  proved  that  these  sheep  made  a  more  profitable  re- 
turn in  growth  for  the  food  consumed  than  any  other  breed. 
Its  hardiness  has  been  proved  by  its  average  losses  by  death 
or  accident  being  as  low  as  two  and  a  half  per  cent  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  under  a  system  of  open  fielding  dur- 
ing the  winter.  It  has  been  kept  mostly  on  a  system  of  feed- 
ing in  the  open  ground  on  turnips. 

The  face  of  this  sheep  is  mostly  white,  sometimes  with  a 
grayish  mottled  marking;  the  cross  with  the  Downs  gives  a 
black  face  with  a  less  pronounced  Roman  nose,  which  is 
however  less  prominent  than  in  the  Lincoln  and  Leicester. 
The  forehead  has  a  conspicuous  tuft  of  wool.  The  belly  is 
generally  well  covered  with  wool,  as  is  also  the  scrotum. 
For  crossing  on  the  smaller  breeds,  especially  our  common 
natives,  it  is  not  excelled  in  point  of  the  hardiness  of  the 
progeny,  the  increased  size  and  the  weight  and  value  of 
the  fleece. 


O  c 


80  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

THE  WENSLEYDALE. 

The  Wensleydale  breed  is  the  produce  of  a  cross  of  the 
Leicester  on  a  Yorkshire  breed  somewhat  similar  to  the 
Lincoln.  By  continued  selection  it  has  become  a  standard 
breed  having  special  peculiarities,  the  chief  of  which  is  a 
bluish  tinge  in  the  skin  and  of  the  face  and  ears,  sometimes 
extending  all  over  the  body,  and  being  more  marked  on  the 
bare  and  hairy  parts.  It  is  mostly  used  for  its  lambs,  which 
are  marketed  when  a  year  old  and  the  mutton  of  which  is 
of  excellent  quality.  It  is  used  mostly  for  crossing  with  the 
black-faced  breeds,  the  peculiar  tinge  of  the  skin  being 
thought  to  throw  lambs  more  like  the  rams,  and  being1  larger 
and  of  excellent  fattening  disposition  they  are  found  more 


WENSLEYDALE  RAM,  TEN  YEARS  OLD. 

profitable  than  the  smaller  pure,  black-faces.  It  is  valued 
for  its  fleece  which  has  a  peculiar  curl,  called  pirls,  these 
being  really  t\vists  of  a  corkscrew  shape,  and  which  in  manu- 
facturing tend  to  felt  in  the  goods,  giving  a  very  firm  and 
tough  cloth  used  for  the  hardest  wear.  The  fleece  is  rather 
open,  long  in  staple,  and  wastes  but  little  as  compared  with 
the  fleece  of  other  sheep  in  the  scouring.  This  peculiarity  of 
the  fleece  is  extended  over  the  whole  of  the  body,  including 
the  head  and  between  the  eyes  and  round  the  ears;  the  belly 
is  well  covered,  as  well  as  the  scrotum  and  down  the  legs, 
with  downy  wool.  There  is  a  conspicuous  absence  of  hair 
in  the  fleece,  which  is  considered  as  an  objectionable  feature 
by  the  breeders. 

The  head  is  of  good  size,  indicating  a  strong  constitution, 
and  is  carried  high  on  a  strong  neck,  giving  the  sheep  a 


Ill     4 


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82  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

much  favored  style  and  an  attractive  appearance.  The  nose 
is  wide,  the  back  of  the  head  is  flat,  the  ears  are  large  and 
prominent.  The  carcass  is  noted  for  its  evenness  and  the 
absence  of  patches  of  fat,  the  meat  being  well  mingled  with 
fat  all  through  rather  than  on  the  outside  of  the  carcass. 
While  it  is  somewhat  slower  in  maturing  and  in  taking  on 
fat  than  the  Leicester,  it  is  thought  to  be  hardier  in  consti- 
tution, and  in  its  active  disposition,  being,  as  we  should  say, 
a  far  better  rustler,  and  thus  more  able  to  withstand  the 
ordinary  hardships  of  outdoor  winter  keeping.  It  is  thus  of 
value  for  crossing  on  the  common  range  flocks  as  well  as  for 
open  grazing  on  farms. 

THE   MOUNTAIN   BREEDS. 

The  Cheviot  is  the  principal  breed  of  this  class,  and  the 
more  interesting  to  the  American  shepherd,  as  it  is  already 
introduced  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  has  made  a  place 
for  itself  in  which  it  has  proved  to  be  a  valuable  breed  for 
farm  use  as  well  as  for  crossing  on  our  native  stock.  Wo 
have  an  association  of  breeders  of  this  sheep  who  deserve 
credit  for  their  enterprise  in  this  direction. 

It  is  named  from  the  Cheviot  hills,  a  range  of  low  moun- 
tains on  the  border  of  England  and  Scotland,  once,  on  a  time, 
the  scenes  of  continued  strife  between  what  might  have  been 
called  in  our  parlance  border  ruffians,  who  during  the  old 
wars  between  England  and  Scotland  made  these  noted  hills 
the  scenes  of  midnight  forays,  by  what  were  then  called  the 
cattle  lifters.  Then  every  shepherd's  house  was  his  castle, 
in  which-  always  armed — he  was  prepared  to  defend  his 
herds  and  flocks  from  the  invaders  from  both  sides.  At  the 
present  time  these  sheep  are  scattered  all  over  the  green 
hills  of  Scotland,  and  with  the  Black-faced  Highland  sheep 
make  up  the  great  majority  of  the  flocks.  The  author  takes 
a  deeper  interest  in  this  breed,  possibly,  as  he  imported  some 
of  them  some  few  years  ago  for  his  farm  in  the  mountains 
of  North  Carolina,  where  they  succeeded  admirably,  and  the 
cross  of  this  breed  on  the  native  sheep  of  this  district  is  yet 
apparent  in  the  larger  build,  finer  mutton  character,  and  the 
largely  increased  fleece  of  wool,  admirably  adapted  to  the 
home  manufacture  of  the  popular  jeans. 

The  special  marks  of  this  breed  are  the  short,  hard,  pure 


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84  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

white  hair  covering  the  face,  extending  over  the  ears  and  be- 
hind the  head;  rudimentary  horns,  which  are  sometimes 
loose  and  mere  appendages  of  the  skin,  a  prominent  Roman 
nose,  black  nostrils  and  bright  full  black  eyes.  The  wool  is 
moderately  long,  straight  and  free  from  kemp  (or  the  short 
coarse  hairs  which  go  by  this  name),  and  covers  well  all 
parts  of  the  body,  the  belly,  breast,  and  legs  down  to  the 
hocks.  The  tail  is  naturally  long  and  rough,  protecting  the 
udders  of  the  ewes,  and  not  objectionable  when  the  sheep 
are  kept  on  pasture  and  not  fed  on  turnips,  rape,  or  other 
laxative  food.  Thd  shoulders  are  high.  The  ewes  are  ex- 
cellent milkers  and  good  mothers,  losing  fewr  lambs,  even 
when  unattended  by  the  shepherd.  They  are  docile  and  not 
given  to  straying,  even  in  the  late  season  when  sheep,  by 
long  inherited  disposition  to  wander,  are  most  inclined  to 
stray. 

It  is  the  custom  with  the  Cheviot  shepherds  to  cross  the 
ewes  with  Leicester,  Lincoln,  or  Weiisleydale  rams;  the 
produce  are  knowrn  as  Leicester  or  half-bred  lambs,  and  are 
popular  in  the  markets  at  twelve  months  old  when  they  w'll 
weigh  sixteen  to  eighteen  pounds  to  the  quarter.  The  flesh 
of  these  half-breds  is  not  so  fat  and  is  better  considered  by 
the  butchers  than  that  of  the  pure  Leicester. 

This  breed  is  kept  in  the  States  of  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Indiana,  Iowa  and  North  Carolina,  and  in  these 
widely  different  and  distant  localities  all  do  well. 

The  fleece  weighs  five  to  seven  pounds  in  the  ewes,  and 
a  half  more  in  the  rams.  The  ewes  imported  by  the  author 
weighed  170  Ibs,  and  the  ram,  two  years  old,  270  Ibs. 

THE   BLACK-FACED   HIGHLAND. 

This  breed  is  smaller  than  the  Cheviot,  and  thrives  well 
on  scant  pastures,  or  the  rough  herbage  of  mountains).  It 
is  originally  a  forest  sheep,  having  been  kept  in  Ettrick  For- 
est from  long  time  back.  It  is  now  the  principal  sheep  of  the 
Scottish  Highlands,  where  it  is  kept  in  large  flocks,  both  for 
its  mutton  and  its  fleece.  The  mutton  is  of  the  finest  quality, 
exceeded  in  this  respect  by  but  one  other  slieep— the  small 
Welsh  mountain  breed— which  furnishes  meat  of  such  fine 
texture  and  flavor  as  to  be  kept  for  sale  mostly  in  the  fancy 
grocery  shops  of  London  and  other  of  the  largest  English 


86  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

cities.    Its  fleece  is  coarse  and  weighs  only  about  four  to 
five  pounds,  being  of  the  class  known  as  carpet  wools. 

The  marks  of  this  sheep  are  black  or  mottled  face  and 
legs;  dun  or  broiwn  patches  are  considered  objectionable  as 
indication  of  impure  blood  and  a  less  hardy  constitution. 
The  nose  is  strong  and  prominent,  but  not  so  much  arched  as 
that  of  the  Cheviot;  the  nostrils  are  black  and  wide.  The 
horns  of  the  rams  are  large  and  heavy,  coming  out  level 
with  the  top  of  the  head,  and  not  joining  each  other  at  the 
base.  They  have  one  to  two  spiral  turns  as  the  age  may  be, 
the  curl  being  in  a  forward  direction,  but  not  protruding 
towards  the  face.  The  ewe  has  small  thin  flattened  horns 
not  spirally  twisted.  The  ears  are  short  and  small.  The 
back  is  broad  all  over  from  the  shoulder  to  the  rump.  The 
tail  is  naturally  short  and  is  not  cut.  A  wether  fat  from 
pasture  and  three  years  old  is  considered  the  finest  of  all 
mutton,  the  quarter  weighing  16  to  18  Ibs. 

Its  constitution  is  exceedingly  hardy  while  on  its  moun- 
tain pastures,  where  foot  rot  never  occurs;  but  one  fault 
with  this  breed  is  that  the  wearing  down  of  the  hoof  on  its 
rocky  home  has  so  increased  the  natural  growth  of  horn  that 
when  the  sheep  is  moved  to  low  land  farms  the  foot  becomes 
soft  and  is  addicted  to  foot  rot.  This  fact  should  be  consid- 
ered by  our  shepherds,  who  might  neglect  this  necessity 
for  paring  the  hoofs  and  so  lead  to  disease  in  the  flock. 

A  few  years  ago  the  author  found  some  of  these  sheep 
on  an  Illinois  farm,  where  it  seemed  at  first  thought  to  be  as 
much  out  of  place  as  a  codfish  from  the  ocean.  But  so  far 
as  could  be  learned  the  flock  had  thrived,  and  if  it  could  so 
far  become  acclimated  to  its  new  surroundings  there,  it 
would  certainly  be  a  welcome  addition  to  our  stock.  On  the 
mountains  there  is  no  question  of  its  success,  but  the  coarse, 
light  fleece  might  stand  in  the  way  of  its  profitable  herding. 
American  flocks  will  scarcely  pay  to  rear  for  wool  alone,  un- 
less this  is  of  the  highest  value,  but  with  valuable  mutton, 
as  this  breed  yields,  the  cheaper  wool  might  not  be  any  in- 
superable objection  to  it,  if  the  market  could  be  found  for 
the  mutton.  The  hardiness  of  the  breed,  however,  makes  it 
a  subject  for  due  consideration  as  to  the  value  of  the  breed 
for  crossing. 


,,.. 


88  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

THE  WELSH   MOUNTAIN. 

This  breed  is  scarcely  worthy  of  notice  were  it  not  for  its 
fine  mutton.  It  is  a  small,  restless,  exceedingly  active  sheep, 
white-faced,  with  a  carcass  yielding  a  quarter  of  twelve 
pounds  or  less,  but  of  such  tenderness  of  flesh  and  high 
agreeable  flavor,  equal  to  that  of  venison,  and  which  brings 
in  the  shops  of  the  English  cities  as  much  as  a  dollar  a 
pound  at  the  Christmas  holidays,  and  half  as  much  at  other 
seasons.  Its  fleece  is  short  but  fine,  and  makes  the  fine, 
highly  considered  Welsh  flannels,  of  which  when  dyed 
scarlet  the  Welsh  women  make  their  cloaks.  A  somewhat 
ludicrous  history  is  attached  to  the  habit  of  the  Welsh  ladies 
of  wearing  this  kind  of  outer  dress.  When  the  French  fleet, 
about  a  century  ago,  landed  some  soldiers  to  make  a  raid 
on  the  Welsh  coast,  the  ladies  were  curious  to  get  a  view  of 
the  hostile  strangers,  and  a  crowd  of  them  standing  on  a  hill 
were  seen  by  the  enemy,  who  thought  them  a  detachment  of 
soldiers  of  the  English  army  in  their  usual  red  coats.  The 
enemy  at  once  fled  back  to  their  ships  and  hastened  home, 
supposing  their  intended  raid  had  been  made  known. 

This  sheep  is  an  example  of  the  very  certain  fact  that 
the  tenderness  and  flavor  of  the  food  gives  the  high  flavor 
to  the  meat,  a  fact  which  is  not  believed  by  some,  but  which 
is  certainly  supported  by  similar  evidence  other  than  this, 
and  is  illustrated  in  the  clearest  manner  to  the  expert  shep- 
herd, who  knows  how  the  pastures  make  the  mutton  as  well 
as  differentiate  the  character  of  the  sheep. 

THE    LEICESTER. 

There  is  somewhat  of  a  misunderstanding  to-day  as 
to  what  the  Leicester  breed  really  is.  There  was  an  old  Lei- 
cester breed  existing,  which  was  a  large  coarse  sheep  with 
a  heavy  fleece  and  a  fairly  good  disposition  to  feed  and 
fatten,  which  a  noted  breeder  of  the  name  of  Bakewell,  who 
was  interested  in  breeding  the  Shorthorn  cattle,  took  up, 
and  began  a  course  of  improvement  by  which  his  name  has 
become  famous  among  sheep  breeders.  He  in  course  of  time 
made  of  it  what  was  known  as  the  Dishley  (from  the  name 
of  Mr.  Bakew ell's  home)  or  the  new  Leicester  breed.  The 
effect  of  Mr.  Bakewell's  efforts  in  this  direction  was  to  pro- 
duce the  most  profitable  sheep  of  the  time,  a  masterpiece  of 


THE    LEICESTER.  89 

breeding,  and  of  skill  in  selection  of  materials  first.  The  new 
breed  was  marked  by  early  maturity,  a  great  disposition  to 
fatten,  a  carcass  which,  for  its  reduced  size,  had  greater 
value  than  the  previously  larger  but  coarser  animal;  a  cor- 
responding diminution  of  offal;  and  the  largest  return  for  the 
food  consumed  than  that  of  any  other  existing  breed  of 
sheep. 

Mr.  Bakewell  made  a  profound  secret  of  his  methods  of 
procedure,  and  although  well  watched  by  those  interested 
in  knowing  his  secret,  so  successfully  guarded  it  that  to  this 
day  very  little  is  known  of  it.  One  thing,  going  to  show  the 
extent  of  his  experiments,  was  discovered  by  one  of  his  com- 
petitors in  former  work  in  improving  the  Shorthorn  cattle, 
which  was  that  Mr.  Bakewell  had  a  remarkably  fine  black- 
ram  in  his  stables,  which  wa,s  supposed  to  have  been  used  in 
this  improvement  of  his  favorite  sheep,  and  it  is  to  this  rani 
that  is  attributed  the  occasional  black  spots  which  are  some- 
times still  found  on  the  best  bred  Leicesters.  Indeed  this 
mark  is  thought  to  be  an  indication  of  strict  purity  in  the 
sheep  that  have  descended  from  the  original  flock  of  Bake 
well. 

It  was  well  known  that  Mr.  Bakewell  was  not  particular 
as  to  the  means  he  used  so  that  the  result  suited  his  purpose. 
It  is  known  that  the  best  specimens  of  the  old  breed  were 
secured  as  the  foundation  for  his  work,  and  that  while  the 
results  were  far  beyond  what  might  have  been  expected,  yet 
they  were  sufficient  to  establish  a  remarkable  improvement 
in  the  old  breed  and  make  of  the  new  breed  the  best  sheep 
then  existing. 

It  had  its  faults,  however.  These  were  want  of  constitu- 
tion, sterility,  and  inferiority  of  fleece.  These  have  been 
amended  by  Mr.  Bakewell's  successors  in  the  same  line,  by 
most  careful  selection  of  rams  closely  bred  from  the  most 
satisfactory  specimens  of  the  improved  flocks.  And  while, 
as  the  case  now  stands,  there  has  been  no  breed  of  long 
wools  that  has  not  been  improved  by  a  cross  of  the  new 
Leicesters,  yet  this  breed  with  its  most  excellent  qualifica- 
tions has  nothing  to  gain  outside  of  itself,  and  have  only 
been  retained  by  preserving  this  breed  pure  and  unmixed. 

The  special  points  of  the  Leicester  are  as  follows: 

The  head  is  hornless,  long,  small,  tapering  to  the  muzzle, 


90  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

and  carried  high,  projecting  forwards  horizontally.  The 
eyes  are  prominent,  with  a  quiet,  docile  expression.  The  ears 
are  thin,  rather  long,  and  directed  backwards.  The  neck  is 
full  and  broad  at  the  chest,  gradually  tapering  to  the  head, 
and  tine  at  the  junction  with  the  head.  The  back  forms  a 
horizontal  line  from  the  rump  to  the  head.  The  breast  is 
broad  and  full.  The  shoulders  broad  and  round,  without 
any  uneven  or  angular  formation  anywrhere.  The  forearm 
is  fleshy  down  to  the  knee,  the  bones  are  small,  the  legs 
standing  far  apart,  no  loose  skin  is  visible  on  them,  and  are 
mostly  bare  of  wool.  The  chest  is  deep,  the  barrel  round, 
the  ribs  spring  well  arched  from  the  back,  and  the  carcass 
diminishes  evenly  from  the  rump  forwards.  The  pelt  is 
thin,  soft,  and  elastic,  and  covered  with  a  good  quantity  of 
fine  white  wool,  finer  in  fiber  than  any  other  of  the  long 
wool  breeds.  Every  one  of  these  fine  points  in  a  sheep  of 
surpassing  excellence,  it  is  known,  was  a  subject  of  study 
by  Mr.  Bakewell,  and  was  carried  through  by  the  choice  of 
any  mate-rial  that  offered  itself  to  this  great  master  of 
breeding. 

Later  breeders  have  followed  in  these  lines,  with  the  re- 
sult that  the  modern  Leicester  is  a  model  sheep,  a  subject 
for  the  naturalist  and  artist  to  admire,  and  for  the  shep- 
herd to  make  his  money  out  of.  This  has  been  used  in  the 
refinement  of  almost  every  other  modern  breed,  but  still 
something  is  left  for  the  modern  breeder  to  study  over  and 
endeavor  to  improve. 

These  are  a  certain  delicacy  of  constitution,  want  of 
sufficient  hardiness  to  withstand  exposure.  Inferior  ability  to 
nurse  the  lambs.  There  are,  however,  many  modern  breeders 
of  these  sheep  who  have  understood  this  fact,  and  their 
efforts  are  constantly  directed  to  improve  on  these  points, 
with  so  far  substantial  success. 

The  chief  value  of  the  breed  doubtless  lies  in  the  ability 
to  improve  others  on  wrhich  the  rams  are  crossed,  and  the 
grades  of  it  are  quite  doubled  in  value  by  the  first  cross. 
It  is  the  great  value  of  the  pure  breeds  like  this  to  improve 
inferior  sheep,  and  thus  the  special  breeder  is  able  to  per- 
form an  invaluable  service  in  affording  the  opportunities  to 
the  ordinary  shepherd.  This  indeed  applies  to  every  pure 
breed  of  sheep,  and  on  account  of  the  vast  labor  and  the  con- 


OTHER  VARIETIES   OF   SHEEP.  01 

summate  skill  needed  to  breed  such  sheep  as  this,  the  shep- 
herd will  never  be  able  to  dispense  with  the  services  of  the 
professional  breeder.  Of  course  the  grades  are  the  great 
source  of  supply  of  sheep  for  market  and  for  wool,  and  these 
depend  on  the  infusion  of  pure  blood  supplied  by  the  profes- 
sional breeders  through  their  fine  rams. 

THE   BORDER   LEICESTER. 

We  sometimes  hear  or  read  of  the  Border  Leicesters,  and 
some  are  at  a  loss  to  know  what  kind  of  sheep  this  may  be. 
It  is  at  the  present  time  so  closely  related  and  similar  to 
the  Leicester  that  it  is  recognized  as  such,  and  no  distinc- 
tion is  made  as  to  the  special  points  of  each  of  the  two.  U 
is  now  a  class  of  this  breed  which  is  larger  in  size,  not  so 
refined  in  form,  has  a  somewhat  longer  and  not  so  fine  a 
fleece.  It  was  formed  through  a  Cotswold  cross  on  the  im- 
proved Leicesters  of  Bakewell.  It  is  regarded  by  some  breed- 
ers as  the  finest  of  this  breed,  and  is  preferred  for  crossing 
on  the  common  mixed  varieties  of  the  common  sheep,  when 
size  and  weight  of  fleece  are  desired.  Of  this  cross  it  is  com- 
mon to  rear  lambs  which  make  twenty  to  twenty-five  pounds 
to  the  quarter  at  fifteen  months  old  and  after  good  feeding. 

OTHER  VARIETIES  OF  SHEEP. 

Spain  has  about  thirty  million  sheep  of  which  the  most 
are  Merinos.  There  the  ancient  fashion  of  migrating  twice  a 
year  from  the  low  pastures  in  the  Spring  to  the  mountain 
ranges  in  the  Fall  still  exists.  This  habit  is  controlled  by 
special  laws  by  which  the  sheep  have  a  right  of  way  on  the 
public  roads  in  preference  to  other  travelers,  and  a  right  of 
free  pasture  on  the  roadsides  for  two  hundred  feet  on  each 
hand.  The  herds  move  under  the  strict  discipline  of  a  leader 
known  as  a  mayoral,  under  whose  charge  there  are  ten  thou- 
sand sheep  in  the  drove.  The  drove  is  divided  into  sections 
of  one  thousand  sheep,  over  which  a  capitaz  takes  charge. 
A  requisite  number  of  shepherds  and  dogs  accompany  the 
drove  and  stay  with  the  sheep  until  the  season  closes,  when 
the  flocks  are  returned  to  their  former  ranges.  The  shep- 
herds are  much  like  those  of  the  French  Llandes,  wearing 
jackets  of  raw  sheepskin  with  the  wool  outside  and  raw- 
hide breeches.  The  jackets  are  mere  skins  without  sleeves 
and  wrapped  around  the  body. 


92  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP 

Spain  exports  annually  about  nine  million  pounds  of 
wool.  It  is  a  matter  of  history  that  countries  which  export 
wool  are  proportionately  deficient  in  civilization,  as  may  be 
easily  thought  when  we  realize  the  fact  that  we  import  about 
as  much  as  our  whole  product,  and  France  imports  a  large 
quantity  to  supply  its  population  with  the  necessities  of  a 
high  civilization. 


SHEEP  OF  THE  PYRENEES. 

Germany  has  twenty-eight  million  sheep,  some  parts  of 
it  exceeding  the  average  number  per  square  mile  existing  in 
Great  Britain,  viz.,  three  hundred.  It  imports  a  large  quantity 
of  wool  for  its  extensive  manufactures.  The  system  of  herd- 
ing sheep  on  the  poor  land  only  has  the  effect  o<£  seriously  cur- 
tailing the  value  of  this  interest,  and  the  native  grown  wool  is 
of  the  inferior  qualities.  But  many  of  the  rich  land  owners 
possess  valuable  flocks,  especially  of  the  small  breeds  of 
Merinos  whose  fleeces  are  exceedingly  fine  but  of  light 
weight. 

Italy  still  preserves  the  ancient  fashion  of  migratory 
flocks;  the  sheep  so  kept  are  of  the  Merino  variety,  of  which 
the  largest  number  make  up  a  majority  of  the  seven  million 
possessed  by  this  nation.  In  the  mountains  there  are  a 


OTHER  VARIETIES  OF  SHEEP. 


large  number  of  sheep  having  black  faces  much  similar  to 
the  flocks  of  the  Scotch  Highlands.  In  Piedmont  a  race  of 
sheep  is  kept  for  the  milk.  These  sheep  have  hanging  ears, 
a  high  arched  nose,  long  bare  legs,  and  bodies  with  scant 


GIBRALTER  AND  EAST  INDIAN  SHEEP. 

fleeces.  Darwin  considered  the  pendant  ears  of  these  and 
other  similar  races  as  a  mark  of  long  domestication,  as  it 
prevails  among  the  oldest  established  breeds  in  those  coun- 
tries in  which  no  modern  improvement  has  been  made.  The 
illustration  here  given  of  a  race  of  East  Indian  sheep  which 
is  wholly  black,  and  of  a  pair  of  sheep  from  Gibraltar  in  the 


THIBET  SHEEP 

soutlnvest  corner  of  Spain,  shows  the  prevalence  in  these 
of  the  drooping  ears.  The  same  is  shown  by  the  Thibit 
sheep. 

A  curiosity  among  sheep  is  the  fat-tailed  sheep  of  An- 
gola, and  some  localities  in  Asia.  The  tail  consists  of  a  curi- 
ous lump  of  fat  on  an  elongated  tail  containing  as  many  as 
twenty  vertabrae.  The  tail  being  considered  as  a  delicacy,  Is 


94 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


generally  carefully  guarded  against  injury  by  being  supplied 
with  a  sort  of  truck  which  is  drawn  about  by  the  animal  as 
it  moves.  A  sheep  of  this  kind  bred  in  Astrachan  has  black 
fine  frizzled  wool,  and  the  skins  are  highly  valued  as  a  fur 
for  the  ornament  of  cloaks  and  especially  for  the  collars, 
and  a  strip  down  each  side  of  the  front  and  for  the  cuffs. 

The  Tunis  sheep  has  been  introduced  here  from  its  Afri- 
can home,  and  like  all  other  immigrants  is  standing  on  its 
merits  as  a  valuable  acquisition  to  our  varieties.  For  some 
time  it  strove  with  its  new  surroundings,  on  the  quite  differ- 
ent conditions  here  from  which  it  had  been  used  to  in  its 
native  African  home,  where  it  was  a  habitant  of  the  moun- 


FAT  TAIL  SHEEP. 


tain  districts  of  that  part  of  the  dark  continent  lying  to  the 
East  of  Algeria.  Thus  Mr.  Kandall— generally  well  in- 
formed—made the  mistake  of  asserting  that  this  sheep  had 
become  extinct,  the  fact  being  that  its  hardy  constitution 
enabled  it  to  overcome  difficulties  of  acclimatation,  and  it 
still  remains  as  one  of  our  adopted  races  and  is  especially 
now  an  American  sheep. 

Its  origin  is  kindly  described  by  Mr.  Rountree,  of  Indi- 
ana, who  is  now  the  owner  of  the  largest  flock  in  the  United 
States.  Mr.  Rountree  gives  the  following  particulars  of 
the  American  history  of  this  breed: 

"It  was  introduced  here  by  General  Eaton,  our  Consul 
at  Tunis,  who  procured  a  small  flock  from  the  Bey  and 
shipped  them  to  Pennsylvania  where  they  came  under  the 
care  of  Judge  Peters  of  Belmotnt,  near  Philadelphia,  The 


Pi  JH 


£ 


«   g 
OJ   »3 

5   g 


96  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

sole  survivors  of  the  voyage — one  pair — became  the  progeni- 
tors of  a  fine  flock  of  pure  blood,  the  last  lamb  being  brought 
by  a  ewe  of  the  age  of  sixteen  years,  when  the  only  original 
pair  fell  victims  to  a  prowling  cur.  Mr.  Peters  bred  these 
sheep  for  twenty  years,  during  which  time  several  flocks 
were  sent  to  Virginia,  Georgia,  and  the  Carolinas,  where 
they  were  bred  with  much  success  until  the  war  of  1861. 
when,  with  other  fine  flocks  in  the  South,  these  sheep  were 
practically  exterminated,  a  small  remnant  only  being  pre- 
served pure.  These  few  sheep,  however,  increased  in  num- 
ber and  specimens  of  them  were  exhibited  at  the  World's 
Fair  at  Chicago,  in  1893.  A  Mr.  Guilliams,  of  Indiana,  pur- 
chased four  of  them  from  the  breeder  at  Columbia,  S.  C., 
and  is  now  breeding  them  successfully.  Mr.  Rountree  on 
seeing  these  sheep  went  to  South  Carolina  and  found  only 
twenty-five  of  them  in  existence.  Of  these  he  procured  ten, 
and  has,  as  the  descendants  of  these,  the  largest  pure  flock  in 
America. 

"These  sheep  are  noted  for  their  early  maturity,  their  pro- 
lificacy (rearing  two  sets  of  lambs  in  the  year),  and  yield- 
ing a  fine  and  long  staple  of  wool.  The  cross  of  the  rams  on 
our  mutton  breeds  yields  an  improved  fleece  and  excellent 
mutton.  The  mutton  of  the  pure  sheep  has  always  been 
noted  for  its  fine  quality,  and  thus  the  cross-bred  produce  is 
valuable  on  this  account,  as  well  as  for  the  fleece. 

"The  ewes  are  good  mothers,  the  lambs  have  been  made 
to  weigh  seventy  pounds  at  the  age  of  eighty  days.  This  breed 
is  hardy  and  of  sound  constitution,  the  rams  weigh  when  ma- 
ture two  hundred  pounds  and  the  ewes  up  to  a  hundred  and 
sixty.  The  cross  of  the  Tunis  and  Merino  makes  an  excel- 
lent sheep  for  every  purpose.  An  association  of  breeders 
has  been  organized,  with  its  headquarters  at  Fincastle,  Ind., 
and  a  herd  book  is  regularly  published." 

OTHER  WOOL  BEARING  ANIMALS  THAN  SHEER 

Wool  is  not  the  sole  product  of  sheep  only.  There  are 
several  related  species  of  the  genus,  whtoh  may  v^  included 
in  the  list  of  wool  bearers,  the  fleeces  of  which  coming  into 
competition  with  the  sheep,  are  of  interest  to  the  shepherd. 
Of  these  related  species  of  this  genus  of  the  Camelidae. 
there  are  the  Llama,  the  Vicuna,  the  Gnanaco,  and  the  Al- 
paca, all  natives  of  the  high  mountain  region  of  South 


OTHER  WOOL  BEARING  ANIMALS.  97 

America,  in  Bolivia  and  Peru  mostly;  and  some  of  the  goats, 
especially  that  known  as  the  Cashmere  which  is  noted  for  its 
exquisitely  fine  and  soft  wool,  and  the  Angora  equally  noted 
for  its  long  silky  fleece. 

The  Alpaca  became  noted  some  years  ago  through  the 
enterprise  of  Mr.  Titus  Salt,  afterwards  made  Knight  under 
the  title  of  Sir  Titus,  by  the  Queen  of  England,  in  recogni- 
tion and  reward  for  his  public  service  in  inaugurating  a 
valuable  industry  in  the  manufacture  of  the  hair  or  wool  of 
the  Alpaca.  This  gave  rise  to  a  considerable  manufacturing 
town  in  Yorkshire,  England,  where  the  chief  manufacturing 
industry  is  based  on  wool,  of  which  the  population  at 
once  sprang  to  several  thousand  on  the  establishment  of 
Saltaire,  as  the  town  of  Mr.  Salt's  creation  was  well  named. 

This  animal  has  been  introduced  into  various  countries 
with  the  intention  to  acclimate  it,  but  in  every  instance  these 
attempts  have  failed.  A  few  of  them  were  carried  into 
Australia,  but— as  might  be  easily  thought— with  disastrous 
failure  on  account  of  the  exceedingly  different  climate  and 
general  environments.  The  dry  climate  of  that  country  being 
so  different  from  the  elevated  locality  to  which  this  ani- 
mal is  naturally  suited,  it  might  have  been  a  foregone  con- 
clusion that  the  attempt  would  be  a  failure.  It  has  been 
introduced  into  France  with  the  same  negative  result,  and 
the  only  specimens  living,  in  any  foreign  country,  are  those 
kept  in  collections  of  wild  animals  under  special  care  and 
culture.  Doubtless  it  might  be  different  in  our  Pacific  coast 
districts,  and  the  newer  states  and  territories  on  the  South- 
west, where  there  are  elevated  ranges  and  a  similar  climate 
more  in  accordance  with  the  natural  habits  of  this  animal. 

This  of  course  applies  to  the  other  races  of  this  interest- 
ing genus,  the  only  related  species  existing  in  the  world, 
Doubtless  there  is  a  profitable  field  for  enterprise  in  the  at- 
tempt to  naturalize  all  these  members  of  this  race  of  most 
useful  animals,  valuable  as  beasts  of  burden,  as  is  its  rela- 
tive the  camel,  well  called  the  ship  of  the  desert.  For  this 
race  is  used  to  a  dry  climate,  and  has  been  used  for  packing 
ores  from  the  mines  near  the  tops  of  the  Andes  over  the 
roughest  roads,  quite  impassable  for  other  beasts,  and  is 
able  to  carry  loads  of  150  to  200  Ibs.  with  ease.  As  well  as 


98  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

for  this  use  it  affords  a  valuable  fleece,  and  its  flesh  is  a  very 
desirable  addition  to  our  usual  bill  of  fare. 

THE  GOAT. 

Another  animal,  or  rather  race  of  animals,  closely  allied 
to  the  sheep,  is  its  congener  the  goat.  This  tribe  is  separated 
into  two  distinct  classes,  the  short  haired  and  the  long  haired. 
Like  the  sheep  the  goat  is  valued  for  its  fleece,  and  for  its 
flesh  and  milk.  Its  milk  is  the  richest  of  all  animals  except 
the  whale  (which  is  not  a  fish  but  one  of  the  varieties  of 
the  mammalia,  or  milk  giving  animals).  The  whale's  milk 
has  far  more  fat  in  it  than  that  of  any  other  animal,  this 
being  about  seventeen  to  eighteen  per  cent;  the  milk  of  the 
goat  has  five  to  seven  per  cent  of  pure  fat  in  it,  and  is  thus 
highly  valued  for  medical  purposes,  especially  as  a  diet  for 
consumptives.  But  it  is  as  a  wool  bearer  that  we  have  to 
consider  it  in  these  pages.  The  finest  wool  in  the  world  is 
the  under  fleece  of  the  Cashmere  goat,  renowned  as  the  pro- 
ducer of  that  costly  staple  of  which  the  most  highly  valued 
shawls  in  the  world  are  made.  This  animal  is  a  native  of 
Asia,  and  is  reared  mostly  in  Persia,  and  especially  in  the 
Province  of  Cashmere,  although  most  of  the  highly  valued 
shawls  are  not  made  in  that  swecial  locality.  This  valuable 
part  of  the  fleece  is  the  undergrowth,  which  is  not  sheared, 
but  naturally  falls  off  in  the  spring  and  is  combed  out  of  the 
upper  fleece  when  it  is  loosening  at  its  annual  period.  This 
wool  is  exquisitely  soft,  fine,  and  silky,  having  the  elasticity 
of  down.  The  yearly  product  is  quite  small,  a  full  grown 
animal  yielding  only  a  few  ounces  of  the  best  quality  of  the 
wool. 

So  far  it  has  never  been  thought  worthy  of  culture  out- 
side of  its  native  locality,  and  as  it  is  only  profitable  for  the 
special  purpose  of  this  quite  insignificant  manufacture,  it  is 
scarcely  probable  that  this  goat  will  be  worthy  of  attention 
here. 

The  Angora  goat,  however,  is  of  a  different  character, 
and  has  already  been  adopted  ns  one  of  our  wool  or  fleece 
bearing  animals.  It  is  a  native  of  one  of  the  Turkish  Pro- 
vinces, and  being  the  basis  of  a  profitable  trade  it  is  jealously 
guarded,  and  its  exportation  is  forbidden  except  under  spe 
cial  permits  by  the  Government.  At  one  time  the  demand 


100  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

for  these  goats  was  so  brisk  that  the  market  value  of  a  rain 
was  twelve  hundred  dollars,  and  a  ewe  brought  five  hundred. 
The  valuable  part  of  its  fleece  is  the  outer  coat  of  fine  long 
silky  hair,  generally  of  a  pure  white,  but  sometimes  a  light 
gray.  The  fleece  weighs  on  an  average  under  eight  pounds 
but  as  it  has  no  yolk  and  loses  little  in  its  preparation  for 
manufacture,  this  weight,  at  the  ordinary  current  prices,  is 
far  more  profitable  than  those  of  the  wool  of  the  sheep. 
Fifteen  pounds  is  the  largest  weight  of  fleece  reported,  this 
being  sheared  from  an  aged  ram. 

The  staple  has  an  average  length  often  to  twelve  inches 
for  the  rams,  and  eight  for  the  ewes,  these  bearing  a  much 
finer  and  more  lustrous  wool.  There  has  been  much  mis- 
understanding in  regard  to  this  and  the  above  named  animal, 
both  being  included  in  the  common  reports  made  and  pub- 
lished a  few  years  ago  under  the  single  name  of  the  Cash- 
mere, which,  as  will  be  readily  perceived  from  the  entire  dif- 
ference between  the  two,  is  a  distinct  misnomer.  So  that 
these  reports  are  entirely  untrustworthy  as  regards  the  high 
value  as  alleged  of  the  Angora  fleece.  Some  of  these  reports 
stating  the  value  to  be  six  or  more  dollars  a  pound  for  the 
raw  fleece,  and  the  weight  of  the  fleece  ns  ten  pounds  or 
more,  it  is  easily  perceived  how  the  public  may  have  been 
deceived  into  paying  exorbitant  prices  for  these  animals, 
and  explains  the  costly  disappointments  which  arose  from 
the  deception.  These  of  course  at  once  threw  a  deep  dark 
cloud  over  this  really  valuable  animal,  and  it  soon  became 
an  object  of  quite  undeserved  disrespect.  Animals  that  had 
been  purchased  for  five  hundred  dollars  were  quickly  sac- 
rificed for  a  mere  trifle,  and  indeed  some  were  given  away, 
as  the  easiest  method  of  ridding  the  unfortunate  owners  of 
them. 

But  more  correct  information  being  gained,  the  goat  soon 
found  a  place  among  our  wool  bearers,  and  has  since  that 
early  time  been  reared  with  much  profit  in  large  flocks, 
especially  on  our  Western  borders,  mostly  in  California, 
where  one  of  the  adjacent  islands  became  a  most  suitable 
home  for  a  large  flock.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  sheared 
fleece  is  not  the  only  source  of  profit,  for  the  skins  are  largely 
used  for  rugs,  for  carriages  and  domestic  uses,  and  are  in 
constantly  good  demand  for  these  purposes.  The  fleece, 


THE  GOAT  101 

however,  has  so  many  and  so  valuable  uses,  that  it  is  in 
permanent  demand  as  the  raw  material  for  a  great  variety 
of  fabrics,  such  as  shawls,  camlets,  mohairs,  poplins,  and 
other  valued  dress  goods,  the  direct  product  of  the  fleece; 
while  the  staple  is  mixed  with  wool,  cotton,  silk,  and  other 
materials,  imparting  a  luster  and  strength  to  these  "which 
greatly  adds  to  the  value  of  the  goat's  fleece. 

This  animal  is  more  like  the  sheep  than  any  other  of  its 
tribe,  being  mostly  distinguished  from  it  by  its  beard,  its 
lopped  ears,  and  the  distinctly  different  form  of  the  horns. 
Its  tail  is  generally  carried  erect  and  on  the  whole  the  car- 
riage of  the  animal  is  more  upright  and  vivacious  than  that 
cf  the  sheep. 

Large  flocks  of  this  goat  are  kept  in  the  Southern  Eng- 
lish settlements  in  Africa,  mostly  in  the  Cape  Colony  and 
in  Natal,  from  whence  <many  million  pounds  of  wool  are 
annually  exported.  It  breeds  at  an  early  age,  often  within 
the  first  year,  and  the  males  have  been  known  to  serve  ewes 
at  the  age  of  seven  months,  the  ewes  being  similarly  pre- 
cocious. The  ewe  frequently  bears  twins,  and  quite  often 
triplets,  while  the  more  aged  ewes  have  produced  four  lambs 
at  a  birth  with  two  births  in  a  year.  The  common  belief 
that  all  these  goats  have  a  strong  unpleasant  scent,  is  a  pop- 
ular error— the  male  only  being  so  distinguished— and  this 
only  at  certain  times  of  the  year.  The  kids  make  excellent 
"lamb,"  and  indeed  those  of  all  the  goat  tribe  are  frequently 
sold  as  lambs  in  the  ordinary  markets. 

Turkey  formerly  enjoyed  the  monopoly  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  these  fleeces,  but  the  inevitably  successful  competi- 
tion of  civilized  nations  has  almost  exterminated  these  old 
manufactures,  and  the  fleeces  are  now  exported,  instead  of 
the  finished  product  of  them. 


INFANTADO  EWE,   OLD  STYLE. 


SPANISH  MERINO  RAM,  IMPORTED  AT  COMMENCEMENT  19th  CENTURY. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  BREEDING. 

Breeding  of  any  of  our  domestic  animals  is  an  art  based 
on  strictly  scientific  principles.  It  may  be  thought  that  it 
is  an  art  only,  and  the  mere  exercise  of  the  results  of  experi- 
ence, without  any  thought  of  the  principles  involved  in  the 
reproduction  of  the  animals  under  the  control  of  mankind. 
But  in  truth  it  is  the  application  of  experience  to  any  skilled 
purpose  first  studying  the  reasons  why  this  or  that  result 
should  be  so,  that  all  scientific  knowledge  consists.  This 
word,  science,  is  not  generally  understood  as  to  its  strict 
meaning.  It  is  derived  from  scio  (a  Latin  word),  meaning  to 
know.  So  that  we  may  say  in  short,  that  science  is  merely 
accurate  knowledge.  It  is  not  in  any  sense  or  in  fact,  sup- 
positions or  beliefs;  but  the  knowledge  of  the  actual  and 
accurate  reasons  why  things  are  thus  or  so,  and  this  knowl- 
edge applied  to  the  common  practice  of  human  life  and 
work,  always  brings  results  precisely  the  same  under  like 
conditions.  That  the  results  reached  by  breeders  of  the  do- 
mestic animals,  or  in  the  culture  of  plants,  which  possess 
a  strict  analogy  with  animals  being  sometimes  disappointing 
and  fruitless,  so  far  as  expectations  go,  is  by  no  means  any 
contradiction  of  these  facts,  but  simply  due  to  the  imperfect 
knowledge  possessed  by  breeders  of  the  materials  they  are 
working  with.  And  every  mistake,  or  unexpected  result,  only 
goes  to  add  to  the  stock  of  accurate  knowledge  which  is  the 
essence  and  fundamental  principle  of  science. 

Science  is  the  accumulated  results  of  work,  experiment, 
and  experience.  Everything,  less  or  more  than  this,  is 
mere  theory;  and  this  is  one  of  the  materials  which  the 
scientific  student  works  with,  in  the  course  of  experiment 
and  practical  application  of  the  knowledge  gained  inch  by 
inch,  a,s  it  were,  until  some  exact  results  are  reached,  and 
these  then  become  really  scientific  principles. 


104  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

Understanding  this,  we  are  then  prepared  to  study  thy 
history  and  the  principles,  as  far  as  these  have  been  ac- 
curately determined,  of  the  breeding  of  sheep. 

What  is  a  breed?  Some  think  it  is  nothing  more  or  less 
than  a  distinct  variety  of  any  of  the  domesticated  animals, 
differentiated  from  all  others  by  certain  marks  and  types, 
which  are  accurately  reproduced  by  the  animals  so  specially 
different  from  all  others  than  their  own  ancestors  aud  prog- 
eny. In  short  it  is  a  class  of  animals  which  reproduce  their 
kind  with  a  certain  degree  of  similarity  in  the  most  impor- 
tant features.  Thus,  those  believing  this  to  be  the  true 
meaning  of  the  term  breed,  do  not  include  among  the  breeds 
any  of  the  wild  animals,  and  only  the  domesticated  kinds. 
Without  discussing  this  questionable  point,  we  only  here 
remark  that  our  understanding  of  the  matter  is,  that  any 
distinct  class  of  animals  existing,  whether  wild  or  domes- 
ticated, that  reproduces  itself  with  exactness  of  form, 
color,  or  habit  of  life,  is  a  breed.  For,  where  have 
we  among  our  domestic  animals,  any  that  exhibit  the 
distinctive  habit  O'f  a  breed,  better  or  more  strictly 
than  the  wild  animals  —  the  buffalo,  or  the  antelope, 
or  the  deer,  or  the  various  w7ild  birds;  or  what 
race  of  sheep  retains  its  constant  form  and  habits  more 
exactly  than  the  wild  big-horn,  or  those  other  races  of  undo- 
mesticated  sheep  of  which  it  is  the  belief  of  every  scientific 
naturalist  our  modern  breeds  are  the  progeny.  And  these 
habits  and  special  peculiarities  every  breeder  of  sheep  con- 
siders and  understands;  and  works  under  this  principle  of 
perpetuating  these  characteristics  in  his  flocks. 

When  the  first  shepherd  undertook  to  reclaim  the  wild 
race,  and  subject  them  to  his  use  for  the  valued  skins,  or 
fleece,  or  the  meat  for  his  food,  we  may  be  sure  he  began 
by  selecting  those  which  came  nearest  his  idea  of  the  great- 
est usefulness.  Thus  the  improvement  of  the  sheep  dates 
back  to  the  remotest  antiquity,  long  before  there  are  any 
historic  records,  and  the  first  knowledge  we  have  of  the  re- 
sults cf  this  selection  and  special  variation  by  breeding, 
based  on  this  selection,  is  gained  from  the  remains  of  tlm 
bones  of  the  domesticated  sheep  discovered  from  time  to 
time  in  the  ancient  caves,  and  the  beds  of  lakes,  where 
primogenlal  mankind  lived  and  died,  and  left  the  remains 


SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  BREEDING.  105 

of  their  work  as  a  study  for  us  to  learn  the  special  habits  of 
those  aboriginal  parents  of  the  human  race.  The  facts  we 
learn  in  this  and  other  ways  all  go  to  prove  that  the  im- 
provement of  the  sheep  dates  back  to  unknown  centuries, 
thousands  of  years,  and  since  that  ancient  time  we  have  the 
best  reasons  to  know  that  there  have  been  constant  and  sue 
cessful  attempts  to  improve  the  race  of  domesticated  sheep, 
by  selection  and  breeding  the  selected  animals,  so  selected 
for  their  better  form,  more  valued  fleece,  and  general  im- 
proved habits  and  conditions.  And  thus  we  have  to-day  dis- 
tinct types  of  sheep  varying  as  to  locality,  climate,  and  the 
kind  of  people  who  bred  and  reared  them.  And  we  may  be 


ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  SHEEP. 

sure  that  this  process  of  improvement  began  with  the  most 
ancient  races  of  mankind,  and  that  these  ancient,  even  pre- 
historic shepherds,  knew  something  about  the  art  of  breeding, 
and  so  necessarily  something  of  the  science,  as  we  distin- 
guish it,  of  breeding  sheep.  We  have  an  example  of  this 
fact  in  the  shrewd  conduct  of  one  of  the  earliest  recorded 
breeders,  Jacob,  who  kept  his  father-in-law's  flocks  in  that 
great  pastoral  region  known  as  Midian,  who  by  devices, 
doubtless  well  known  to  the  shepherds  of  those  days,  so  in- 
fluenced the  nervous  functions  of  the  ewes,  as  to  bring 
lambs  marked  in  a  peculiar  way  by  which  he  secured  a 
questionable  advantage  over  his  old  father-in-law.  We  can- 
not doubt  that  these  old  shepherds  knew  a  good  deal  about 


106  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

breeding  sheep,  and  their  acuteness  in  this  way  doubtless 
advanced  the  value  of  the  flocks  very  largely. 

Breeding  is  the  art  of  influencing  the  character  of  any 
animal  by  changing  the  conditions  of -life,  and  regulating  th'e 
reproduction  by  selection  of  individuals,  as  well  as  by  inten- 
sifying by  the  best  methods  of  feeding  all  the  natural  pro- 
clivities. Thus  there  must  be  an  adequate  foundation  to 
begin  with;  a  basis  to  stand  upon;  and  in  selecting  this 
starting  point  the  natural  or  acquired  ability  of  the  breeder 
plays  a  most  important  part.  Thus  we  may  say  that  there 
are  three  general  principles  or  laws  by  which  the  art  of 
breeding  is  made  practical.  These  are  heredity,  selection 
and  variability. 

Heredity  is  a  special  function  of  all  animals,  and  the 
common  maxim  of  the  breeder,  that,  "like  produces  like," 
is  to  be  taken  as  the  starting  point.  The  reproductive 
process  is  largely  influenced  by  what  may  be  said  to  be  a 
nervous  force,  so  far  as  regards  animals  whose  functions 
are  all  controlled  by  the  nervous  system.  It  is  different  in 
the  lower  forms  of  life,  as  in  those  species  which  reproduce 
by  a  simple  process  of  division,  or  as  it  is  commonly  termed, 
fission,  or  separating  into  two  parts,  each  precisely  alike. 
This  is  the  principle  on  which  all  the  lower  organisms  repro- 
duce themselves.  A  complete  organism  simply  produces  a 
dividing  membrane,  which  when  complete  forms  one  of  the 
walls  of  each  of  the  two  parts  into  which  it  separates,  and 
the  two,  then  completed  forms,  again  repeat  the  process, 
thus  prolonging  the  life  of  the  race  indefinitely.  In  this  in- 
stance heredity  is  perfect  and  paramount,  and  each  now 
form  is  precisely  like  the  parent  of  it.  It  is  the  same  with 
those  plants  that  grow  from  slips  or  cuttings,  or  from 
tubers,  which  are  in  fact  a  part  of  the  plant  itself.  And  yet 
in  these  there  is  frequent  variation  as  in  the  potato,  or  the 
dahlia,  which  as  it  is  termed,  sports  and  varies  from  the 
original.  But  in  animals,  while  there  is  a  process  extremely 
like  the  fission  or  duplication  of  the  lower  organisms,  yet  the 
action  and  influences  of  the  nervous  forces  come  in  play, 
and  affect  the  fetus  in  its  interuterine  growth,  and  thus  we 
have  variations  in  animal' reproduction  which,  at  the  same 
time,  interfere  with  or  aid  the  efforts  of  the  breeder,  giving 
him  in  the  latter  instances  a  new  departure  which  he  is  often 


SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  BREEDING.  107 

able  to  use  as  the  basis  of  improvement.  The  foi:ce  of  in- 
heritance, however,  is  the  main  point  for  the  breeder  to  con 
sider  and  turn  to  his  advantage,  and  it  is  not  to  be  over- 
looked in  the  study  of  this  important  part  of  this  subject.  As 
has  been  remarked  by  Mr..  Darwin:  "It  is  hardly  possible, 
within  moderate  bounds,  to  impress  on  those  who  have  not 
fully  studied  this  subject,  the  full  conviction  and  impression 
of  the  force  of  inheritance,  which  is  slowly  but  surely  ac- 
quired by  rearing  animals  by  the  study  of  the  various  treat- 
ises which  have  been  published  on  the  subject  of  breeding 
of  our  domestic  animals,  or  by  conversation  with  experi- 
enced breeders." 

But  in  thrs  regard  we  must  give  due  force  to  that  pe- 
culiarity existing  in  all  animals,  \vhich  is  known  as  atavism, 
or  going  back,  and  by  which,  after  all  the  work  of  a  breeder, 
will  tend  to  interfere  with  his  reasonable  expectations  by  the 
appearance  of  long  back  inherited  peculiarities  by  which 
new  difficulties  are  thrown  in  the  way  of  expected  progress. 
And  not  only  are  forms  and  dispositions  thus  inherited  from 
ancestors,  long  back  removed,  but  the  work  of  the  breeder 
is  still  further  complicated  by  the  reappearance  of  undesira- 
ble points  which  have  been  thought  to  have  been  bred  out 
And,  again,  the  strangest  irregularities  are  thus  produced 
not  only  by  inheritance,  but  by  accidental  peculiarities  which 
arise  through  the  action  of  unexpected  events  on  the  nervous 
system  of  the  female  animal.  For  as  Jacob  produced  streaked 
and  spotted  progeny  from  his  sheep  and  goats,  by  the  use 
of  peeled  willowr  branches,  and  as  we  read  the  sheep  were 
streaked  and  spotted,  and  had  bro\vn  faces,  in  consequence 
of  the  effect  of  these  unusual  appearances  placed  before 
them  at  the  coupling  time,  so  similar  effects  may  be  pro- 
duced by  wre  know  not  what  accidents,  to  divert  the  ex- 
pectations and  purposes  of  the  breeder.  We  know  the  very 
great  strength  of  inherited  tendency  to  diseases,  and  how  the 
produce  of  unsound  animals,  even  to  the  distortion  of  the 
joints  and  limbs,  is  likely  to  be  affected  in  a  similar  way. 
Thus  both  for  good  or  ill,  the  breeder  must  take  into  account 
these  natural  transmissions  of  defects  or  inherited  peculiar- 
ities, and  be  prepared  to  meet  them,  and  suffer  disappoint- 
ments and  delays,  unless  by  the  severest  scrutiny  he  avoids 
all  these  risks.  Indeed  these  conditions  may  be  accepted  as 


108  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

an  unavoidable  part  of  the  practice  of  breeding,  to  be  guard- 
ed against  with  the  utmost  care.  This  necessarily  brings 
us  to  and  leads  on  to  the  consideration  of  the  second  point 
under  consideration  which  is  that  of  selection. 

If  the  breeder  can  always  be  sure  of  the  full  history  of 
the  animals  he  makes  use  of  for  the  improvement  of  his 
flock,  there  would  be  a  more  certain  element  in  his  work. 
This,  however,  is  scarcely  possible,  unless  the  standard  herd 
books  used  for  this  purpose  were  an  exact  record  of  the 
whole  life  history  of  every  animal  entered  therein.  This  is 
not  supposable,  for  as  the  owner  is  then  to  be  the  historian 
of  his  animals  he  could  not  be  expected  to  make  any  such 
possible  fatal  record  againt  them.  So  that  after  all,  the 
breeder  is  to  fall  back  on  his  own  judgment,  and  take  the 
chances  of  success  or  defeat,  partial  or  complete.  And  as 
he  may  find  the  produce  of  the  best  selected  animals  may 
vary  from  his  desired  standard,  he  must  undo  the  work 
so  far  and  begin  again.  This  illustrates  the  necessity  of  the 
full  acquaintance  of  the  breeder— the  special  breeder  is  here 
referred  to— with  the  history  of  the  flock  from  which  he 
selects  his  animals  and  by  the  exercise  of  good  judgment, 
and  with  a  full  knowledge  of  the  source  of  the  animals  he  se- 
lects from,  take  those  only  which  he  may  be  sure  will  meet 
the  ends  he  has  in  view,  as  far  as  possible. 

This  selection,  of  course,  can  only  be  made  by  one  who 
really  knows  what  he  wants;  the  ends  he  has  in  view; 
the  defects  of  his  own  stock  which  he  desires  to  get  rid  of; 
and  the  special  points  which  he  wishes  to  develop  in  his 
own  flock.  In  fact,  it  is  as  in  all  other  business  and  profes- 
sions, one  must  have  a  full  and  accurate  knowledge  of  what 
is  going  on  in  his  special  line  or  pursuit.  And  after  all  there 
is  something  more  than  mere  knowledge  involved  in  this. 
For  we  find  many  of  the  most  successful  breeders  depend  on 
an  intuition— a  natural  instinct  of  the  fitness  of  things  on  a 
first  view — often  more  than  on  any  method  for  which  they 
can  give  a  reason.  Undoubtedly  the  breeder  has  what  he 
needs  fixed  in  his  mind,  although  he  cannot  express  it  in 
words,  and  when  the  right  animal  is  seen  it  appeals  to  this 
unspoken  and  unspeakable  sense  of  fitness;  and  the  selec- 
tion so  made  is  generally  the  best  for  the  purpose  required. 

But  this  is  not  the  work  of  a  momentary  impulse.  Time  is 


SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF   BREEDING.  109 

to  be  taken  for  thought  and  comparison  before  a  selection  is 
made.  It  may  be,  however,  that  one  single  point  is  in  view. 
This  simplifies  the  matter.  Mr.  Bakewell  spent  months  in 
selecting  a  ram  with  the  kind  of  head  he  once  wanted.  And 
although  there  were  undesirable  points  in  other  respects 
about  the  ram,  yet  he  got  the  head,  and  then  went  to  work 
to  breed  out  these  by  other  selections.  This  takes  time,  but 
the  fixing  of  a  type  is  a  work  of  time.  The  history  of  the 
breeding  of  our  modern  sheep  is  full  of  examples  of  this  long 
life  work,  and  the  best  of  the  old  breeders  were  never  able 
to  preserve  strict  uniformity  in  any  breed.  Two  flocks  of  the 
New  Leicester  were  started  at  the  same  time  by  two  breed- 
ers, and  the  flocks  were  kept  quite  distinct  for  fifty  years. 
At  the  end  of  this  period  the  two  flocks  were  entirely  differ- 
ent in  type,  and  each  had  wholly  lost  the  special  characteris- 
tics of  the  original  flock.  Here  is  an  instance  of  the  effect 
of  personality  in  the  breeding.  The  type  desired — according 
to  the  fancy  of  the  breeder— had  prevailed  in  each  flock; 
and  each  had  departed  greatly  from  the  type  of  the  original 
flock  from  which  the  two  sprang.  Variation  must  have  a 
distinct  cause.  Such  a  cause  exists  in  the  breeding  of  small 
flocks  in  each  of  which  there  has  been  special  methods  of 
selection  of  rams  for  breeding.  It  is  impossible  to  maintain 
an  invariable  condition  or  habit  of  form,  among  many  flocks, 
for  the  personality  of  the  owner  must  inevitably  appear  in 
each  one.  Thus  it  is  that  breeders  of  any  special  class  of  sheep 
should  frequently  examine  what  their  competitors  are  do- 
ing, so  as  to  avoid  any  serious  loss  of  uniformity  of  type  in 
the  breed.  In  this  our  herd  books,  and  the  annual  exhibi- 
tions are  extremely  useful,  and  it  is  doubtless  by  means  of 
these  annual  opportunities  of  exhibiting  the  skilled  work  of 
the  breeders,  all  working  towards  a  single  standard  of  ex- 
cellence, that  we  shall  be  freed  in  a  great  measure  from  the 
risks  and  failures  of  the  old  breeders,  who  made  their  work 
a  secret  and  each  one  of  whom  was  working  in  ignorance 
of  what  others  were  doing1. 

There  cannot  be  a  serious  divergence  of  results  when 
every  skilled  breeder  is  working  with  a  portrait,  as  it  were, 
of  his  desired  sheep  before  his  eyes,  as  is  the  case  with 
the  standard  before  him  and  the  actual  sheep  exhibited  at 
the  fairs.  This  modern  improvement  is  the  greatest  security 


110  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

for  tlia  breeders  who  have  the  standard  in  their  ruind,  and 
must — for  successful  competition  for  the  premiums — work  in 
strict  conformity  with  its  requirements. 

Possibly  the  Germans  have  reached  the  high  excellence 
of  their  best  breeds  of  sheep  by  the  happy  thought  of  em- 
ploying experts  for  the  selection  of  rams  used  for  breeding. 
These  expert  judges  travel  through  the  country  and  visit  the 
(locks  of  the  breeders,  and  especially  of  the  large  estates  of 
the  wealthy  proprietors.  They  advise  the  owners  of  the 
special  points  to  be  bred  for  in  their  flocks,  and  select  those 
rams  that  are  the  most  desirable  to  preserve  unity  of  type. 
The  immense  advantage  of  this  is  apparent  at  first  thought. 
It  gives  to  many  the  mind  of  one,  and  thus  uniformity  is 
gained,  and  once  gained  is  preserved.  This  is  valuable,  to  not 
only  the  special  breeder,  but  to  the  mere  wool  producer  whose 
income  depends,  not  so  much  on  the  actual  weight  of  his 
product,  but  of  any  special  value  it  may  have  for  the  manu- 
facturer. We  may  come  to  this  in  time  ourselves,  and  doubt- 
less find  the  advantage  of  it  in  the  right  selection  of  the  rams 
for  the  wool  grower,  as  well  as  the  mutton  producer.  As  the 
great  majority  of  our  flocks  are  low  bred,  or  half  bred,  or 
not  bred  at  all,  there  is  unquestionably  a  vast  improvement 
possible  in  the  increase  of  the  value  of  them,  for  all  their 
products,  including  rams  for  the  use  of  the  ordinary  shep- 
herd who  is  unable  to  breed  his  own,  an  unwise  thing  to  do 
anyway,  as  may  be  exemplified  by  the  example  given  above 
of-  the  two  flocks  of  pure  Leicesters.  As  it  is,  there  is  too 
much  of  the  uncertainty,  if  not  ignorance,  of  the  precise 
needs  of  the  flockmaster;  too  much  of  the  carelessness,  and 
sometimes  too  much  of  the  willfulness  among  shepherds: 
which  may  be  illustrated  by  the  common  adage  relating  to  a 
person  known  as  Dr.  Fry,  who  was  much  disliked  by  some 
one,  who  gave  his  reason  in  this  Avay: 

"I  do  not  like  you,  Doctor  Pry, 

I  cannot  tell  the  reason  why; 

But  I  clo  not  like  you,  Doctor  Pry." 

For  and  against  the  sheep  in  its  variations,  many  a 
shepherd  may  say  the  same  of  those  he  does  not  approve  of, 
'and  yet  for  want  of  the  accurate  knowledge,  which  is  noth- 
ing more  or  less  than  the  science  of  his  profession,  the  shep- 


CLIMATIC  INFLUENCES.  Ill 

herd  may  lose  great  opportunities  of  improving  his  flock  by 
missing  the  best  medium  for  so  doing. 

Among  the  most  effective  causes  of  variations  we  may 
mention  the  influence  of  climate,  soils,  and  other  influences 
growing  out  of  them.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  success 
of  the  American  Merino  has  been  largely  due  to  the  more 
suitable  climate  here,  and  as  well  to  the  soil  of  the  localities 
where  they  have  made  the  greatest  success.  It  is  the  same 
with  other  localities.  For  instance,  the  high-bred  horses 
nowhere  do  as  well  as  in  Kentucky,  where  the  limestone  soil, 
the  moderate  climate,  and  the  blue  grass  pastures,  all  com- 
bine to  give  constitution  and -stamina,  with  the  endurance 
owing  to  these  which  are  secured  no\vhere  else  to  the  same 
degree  in  the  world.  So  the  Kentucky  Shorthorn  cattle 
have  excelled  in  every  way  their  imported  parents,  and  in  re- 
gard to  sheep,  it  is  found  everywhere,  that  the  American 
Merino  is  the  first  of  its  class  in  the  world.  Wiith  the  same  care 
and  skill  applied  to  other  breeds,  we  may  unfailingly  expect 
to  advance  these  breeds  to  a  like  high  point,  if  only  the  same 
skill  and  good  judgment  are  exercised  in  regard  to  them. 

Climate  is  cne  of  the  most  effective  influences  for  good 
or  evil  on  the  sheep.  While  the  sheep  is  a  cosmopolitan, 
and  thrives  everywhere  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  shepherd, 
yet  the  most  favorable  influences  in  any  new  country  must 
be  secured  for  the  i mined iate  success  of  introduced  varieties 
of  sheep.  That  the  American  climate  (including  Canada 
with  the  United  States  in  this  continental  application)  pos- 
sesses a  special  adaptation  to  breeding  and  keeping  of  sheep 
with  entire  and  immediate  success,  is  unquestionable.  There 
are  ample  proofs  of  this  in  the  history  of  every  kind  of  sheep 
that  has  been  imported  and  bred.  The  American  Merino  has 
found  purchasers  at  the  highest  prices  in  competition  with 
the  sheep  of  every  other  country  in  which  the  Merino  is 
bred.  The  English  breeds  have  prospered  equally  with  our 
Merino,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  every  valuable  breed  of 
sheep,  whether  adapted  to  mountain*  or  valley;  the  open 
range,  or  cultivated  farm;  the  marshes,  even;  may  not  be- 
come a  means  for  the  profitable  investment  of  capital,  and 
an  occupation  for  the  labor  of  the  shepherd,  as  well  as  for 
the  manufacturing  industry  and  the  employment  of  labor  in 
disposing  of  our  wool. 


112  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

The  question  of  acclimatatioii  has  beeii  settled,  and  the 
favorable  iufi Deuces  of  it  on  the  various  breeds  of  sheep,  ex- 
isting anywhere,  admit  of  no  doubt  whatever.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a  matter  for  the  study  of  the  breeder,  lest  he  may  make 
mistakes  in  trying  to  adopt  the  different  breeds  to  circum- 
stances of  locality,  climate,  soil,  and  variety  of  culture  that 
may  not  be  the  most  suitable  for  seme  special  needs  of  the 
shepherd.  Every  kind  of  climate  is  to  be  found,  from  the  tem- 
perate regions  to  the  semi-tropical;  and  the  sheep  has  proved 
itself  at  home  from  the  most  northerly  part  of  Canada  to 
the  warm  Wiuterless  regions  of  the  South,  for  some  special 
kind  which  may  be  best  suited  for  the  new  home. 

But  it  must  be  well  understood  that  the  fixing 
of  types  suitable  to  varied  conditions,  is  not  the  work 
of  a  year  or  a  few  years;  but  is  to  be  the  patient 
study  and  experiment  of  a  lifetime.  It  is  not  in 
a  haphazard  way,  either, ,  that  we  can  reach  success. 
The  sheep  is  an  impressible  animal,  but  equally  apt 
to  lose  its  temporary  individuality.  The  whole  ex- 
perience of  a  century  of  breeding  has  showed  that  types 
are  still  uncertain.  In  this  regard  acclimatation  is  a  slow 
process,  for  it  is  not  always  that  this,  and  the  animal,  may 
match  immediately.  The  process  of  acclimatation  goes  by 
steps;  each  making  a  short  progress;  for  the  individual  life 
is  too  short  to  wholly  change,  even  a  sheep,  into  a  wholly 
new  animal.  History  goes  to  show  that  this  process  is  only 
developed  slowly,  for  the  constitution  has  to  be  changed  to 
meet  the  new  environments.  And  it  has  shown  that  the  ma- 
jority of  animals  do  not  submit  easily  to  changes  of  climate; 
some  may;  those  which  are  readily  impressed  by  their  situa- 
tion will;  but  at  the  same  time  there  are  effects  of  climate 
which  are  not  desirable,  and  these  are  to  be  overcome  by  the 
slow  process  of  cultivating  the  variability  of  the  sheep, 
by  due  mixtures  of  new  blood,  which  may  require  many 
years  to  become  fully  acclimated. 

In  the  breeding  of  any  of  the  domesticated  animals,  as 
of  the  domestication  of  any  wild  race,  climate  is  to  be 
seriously  considered.  Indeed,  any  violent  change  of  con- 
dition is  to  be  avoided,  unless  by  a  process  of  crossing  the 
new  blood  on  sheep  already  habituated  to  their  special  en- 
vironments. Thus  it  may  be  wise  to  cross  our  native 


CLIMATIC  INFLUENCES.  113 

variety,  or  even  a  cross  of  it  by  other  and  improved  breeds, 
with  rams  selected  from  quite  different  localities;  that  is, 
for  the  mountain  ranges  the  Lincoln  or  the  Leicester  or  the 
Shropshire  rams  may  be  used,  but  it  would  not  be  advisable 
to  introduce  these  breeds  wholly  and  suddenly  into  these 
entirely  different  conditions;  and  for  lowland  flocks  ^it  may 
be  safe  to  cross  them  with  the  Romney  Marsh  rams,  or  with 
a  sheep,  such  as  the  Cheviot,  reared  in  an  intermediate  local- 
ity, neither  mountain  nor  plain.  Strong  variations  are  always 
to  be  deprecated,  but  may  be  made  gradually  by  the  use 
of  sheep  from  an  intermediate  locality,  or  which  have  been 
acclimatated  by  one  or  two  years  residence.  So  the  Merino, 
naturalized  by  centuries  of  adaptation  to  warm  dry  climates, 
to  lowland  pastures,  to  mountain  ranging,  and  which  has  ex- 
hibited wonderful  endurance  and  facility  in  meeting  and  suc- 
cessfully surmounting  any  supposed  difficulties  in  these 
ways,  has  proved  itself  a  true  cosmopolitan,  and  meets  every 
expectation  of  the  shepherd  in  every  part  of  the  world. 
We  find  it  in  the  cold,  snowy  northern  New  England  fields; 
in  the  dry  plains  of  California;  in  the  hot  climate  of  Central 
America  or  Southern  Africa,  or  the  rainless  ranges  of  Aus- 
tralia; as  well  as  on  our  Western  prairies,  and  the  vast 
ranges  of  our  great  Northwest.  And  it  should  be  the  busi- 
ness of  shepherds  to  study  out  the  natural  history  of  the 
sheep  and  its  characteristics,  as  given  in  a  preceding  chap- 
ter, and  thus  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  special, 
natural,  or  acquired  disposition  of  the  sheep  he  fancies,  be- 
fore he  commits  himself  to  cosily  enterprises. 

As  may  be  understood,  acclimatation  is  the  process  of 
adaptation  by  which  animals  brought  from  different  locali- 
ties are  rendered  by  gradual  steps  able  to  withstand  the  coudi- 
tdons  of  their  new  localities,  and  to  not  only  survive  but 
flourish  under  these  strange  circumstances  in  countries  re- 
mote from  their  native  habitation  and  under  wholly  differ- 
ent climatic  effects.  Even  with  the  human  race,  coloniza- 
tion has  been  attempted  disastrously  except  by  slow  degrees, 
and  frequently  only  by  the  crossing,  by  intermarriage,  of 
Europeans  with  the  native  races.  The  history  of  British  In- 
dia affords  an  example  of  this  difficulty  of  acclimatating  our 
race,  used  to  sustain  all  kinds  of  hardships,  and  resist  the 
most  extreme  variations  of  climate.  But  the  effects  of  the 


114  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

Indian  climate  have  been  such  that  after  a  century  of  occu- 
pation, the  British  residents  in  India  have  been  obliged  to 
return  to  their  native  country  to  somewhat  lengthen  out 
their  shortened  lives,  due  to  the  baneful  effects  of  an  ener- 
vating and  unwholesome  climate.  It  is  the  fact  that  the 
effects  of  extreme  heat  changes  the  wool  of  a  sheep  to  hair, 
after  a  few  generations,  and  similar  effects  occur  to  change 
the  character  of  the  fleeces  of  the  English  sheep  in  the  first 
crosses  made  under  excessive  change  of  climate.  Of  course, 
the  opposite  effects  occur  when  the  new  conditions  are  all 
in  favor  of  the  sheep,  but  this  can  only  be  secured  by  ex- 
perience; no  sufficient  certainty  can  be  assured  in  any  other 
way  than  this. 

But  long  experience  has  shown,  that,  with  but  little  ex- 
ception, full  acclimatation  is  possible  with  all  kinds  of  ani- 
mals except  in  a  few  instances,  as  that,  the  Newfoundland 
dog  will  not  live  in  India;  nor  do  the  Spanish  breed  of 
fowls  thrive  in  any  other  country  than  in  their  own.  This 
is  true  with  other  breeds  of  fowls,  which  change  their  char- 
acter, sometimes  ruinously,  when  transferred  to  a  different 
climate.  This  is  most  marked  in  the  case  of  wild  animals, 
which  are  rarely  successfully  reared  in  any  other  locality 
than  that  native  to  them.  Thus  the  natural  adaptation  of 
animals  to  strange  and  different  climates,  directly,  has  very 
rarely  been  successful,  and  a  course  of  breeding  by  occa- 
sional reversion  to  the  old  stock,  from  its  original  home, 
has  been  found  necessary,  as  well  as  some  considerable  time 
that  must  elapse  before  acclimatation  can  be  successfully 
and  permanently  assured. 

As  in  all  similar  changes,  acclimatation  has  been  found 
more  easily  successful  by  taking  intermediate  stages  in  the 
process.  This  fact  is  of  great  importance  to  the  American 
breeders,  not  only  in  sheep,  but  of  cattle  and  horses.  Prog- 
ress by  stages  has  always  been  found  the  most  sure  and 
effective,  and  the  results  gained  at  each  step  have  been 
fixed  without  any  apparent  reversion  or  degradation.  Thus 
the  Spanish  Merino  sheep  has  not  been  found  satisfactory 
in  Argentina,  or  in  Australia,  or  in  South  Africa.  But  the 
same  sheep,  after  years  of  training  and  preparation  in  the 
United  States,  has  been  most  decidedly  so.  And  this  is  why 
the  shrewd  breeders  of  Australia,  made  expert  by  a  century 


CLIMATIC  INFLUENCES.  115 

% 

of  practice,  are  fully  satisfied  to  pay  the  enormous  sum  of 
five  thousand  dollars  for  an  outbred  Merino  rani.  We  must 
not  suppose  the  experienced  breeders  of  that  great  sheep 
rearing  country  are  wanting  in  common  sense,  or  do  not 
know  precisely  what,  they  want;  and  when  a  ram  bred  in 
Tasmania  sold  for  this  great  price  the  Australian  breeder 
was  well  aware  what  he  was  about.  The  Tasmnnian  climate 
is  intermediate  with  the  dry  hot  plains  of  Australia,  and  this 


"VICE-PRESIDENT." 

Hon.  Jas.  Gibson's  Grand  Champion  Merino  Ram,  sold  at  Melbourne  Ram 
Sales  for  1,000  guineas  ($5,000). 

gradual  change  of  climate  goes  a  great  way  to  secure  the 
most  desirable  results  through  the  gradual  acclimatatiou 
of  the  sheep.  The  pictures  here  given  of  the  rams  thus  pur- 
chased show  the  fullest  good  sense  and  business  ability 
and  shrewdness  of  the  buyer.  The  excess  of  wrinkles  on 
the -sheep  is  precisely  what  is  wanted  in  breeding  on  smooth 
bodied  sheep,  and  to  increase  the  weight  of  the  fleeces  of  the 
progeny  of  these  rams.  But  the  gradual  acclimatation  is 
worth  still  more,  for  it  is  an  indispensable  matter  with 
Australian  breeders  to  preserve  the  full  and  hardy  constitu- 


116  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

tion  of  their  flocks  by  the  use  of  rams  chosen  for  this  pur- 
pose from  aii  intermediate  locality. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  our  Merino  breeders  are  able  to 
get  the  high  prices  paid  for  rams  in  these  distant  great  sheep 
ranges.  Those  breeders  know  just  what  they  want,  and  find 
the  first  step  in  the  necessary  preparation  of  the  breed  has 
been  made  here,  and  so  they  come  hither  to  take  the  best 
of  our  rams  to  complete  the  process  in  their  own  flocks. 


"ROYALIST." 

W.  H.  Gibson's  Tasmanian  Merino  Ram,  sold  for  1,000  guineas  ($5,000)  at 
the  Sydney  Ram  Sale. 

It  is  for  this  reason  too  that  our  breeders  may  still 
expect  to  find  a  constant  demand  for  our  best  rains  or  ewes 
for  nothing  more  or  less  than  this  step  in  this  process  of  ac- 
cliniatation,  having  been  made  here,  it  is  so  much  easier  to 
complete  the  process  by  the  use  of  these  intermediately  ac- 
climatized sheep. 

But  it  does  not  follow  that  American  breeders  are  not 
themselves  forced  to  go  back  to  the  fountain  head  as  regards 
some  of  our  breeds  not  yet  as  fully  acclimatized  here.  We 
ourselves  need  to  sustain  and  improve  every  breed  we  have. 


CLIMATIC  INFLUENCES.  117 

except  perhaps  our  fully  Americanized  Merino.  The  French 
or  Rambouillet,  or  delaine  variety  is,  we  think,  hardly  to  be 
included  in  this  full  preparation  for  entering  the  ram  mar- 
kets of  the  world.  It  will  doubtless  come  in  time,  and  all 
the  sooner  as  our  breeders  will  fix  on  a  settled  type  for  this 
class  of  sheep.  The  nature  of  the  animal,  as  a  scion  of  the 
old  best  Spanish  breed,  improved  by  the  culture  of  the 
French  breeders,  has  been  improved  by  the  first  step  in  this 
process,  the  second  step  is  being  taken  here,  and  it  must 
go  without  saying— as  a  distinct  scientific  certainty— that 
our  breeders  will  soon  have  the  market  of  the  world  for 
these  rams  as  well  as  for  the  true  American  Merinos,  if  they 
will  continue  to  breed  for  the  type  of  sheep  wanted  to  per- 
fect the  flocks  of  other  countries,  and  to  sustain  them  in  this 
perfection  by  the  addition  of  blood  acclimatized  here.  It  is 
thus  seen  that  this  matter  of  fixing  a  type  in  conformity  to 
the  conditions  cf  an  intermediate  stage  of  the  breeding,  is 
one  of  the  most  important  to  be  considered  by  the  American 
breeder. 

The  following  illustrations  of  this  subject  may  be  offered 
just  here: 

The  method  of  acclimatation  suggested  in  the  foregoing 
lines  should  be  regulated  by  several  precautionary  considera- 
tions: 

First:  It  may  have  no  certain  great  or  definite  effect  in 
adapting  the  constitution  of  individual  animals  to  a  new 
climate,  and  the  various  differences  growing  out  of  it;  but  at 
times  may  be  wholly  destructive  to  it,  and  wholly  change  for 
the  worse  all  the  weakest  points  of  the  animal. 

Second:  It  has  been  shown  by  sufficient  experience  that 
the  offspring  of  animals  vary  in  their  constitutional  adapta- 
tion to  the  climate,  and  therefore  this  influence  must  be 
controlled  and  enforced,  and  increased  and  kept  up  by  the 
effect  of  inheritance,  through  a  wise  course  of  breeding,  and 
a  careful  and  skillful  selection  of  the  most  successful  in- 
stances of  this  adaptation. 

Third:  It  has  been  shown  that  great  and  sudden  changes 
of  climate  have  resulted  in  serious  degeneration  in  regard 
to  health,  and  a  considerable  check  to  reproduction.  Barren- 
ness has  resulted  in  many  conspicuous  instances,  as  a  result 
of  wide  climatic  differences,  by  which  the  nervous  system 


118  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

has  been  so  much  weakened  that  the  reproductive  functions 
have  been  rendered  wholly  inoperative. 

In  order  therefore  to  succeed  in  the  acclimatation  of  aui- 
nials  in  any  strange  and  dissimilar  climate  4o  that  in  which 
it  has  been  reared,  and  in  which  it  is  found  that  it  cannot 
directly  maintain  itself  or  even  live — much  less  increase  its 
kind — certain  plans  must  be  adopted. 

An  intermediate  station  must  be  provided,  in  which  the 
differences  .of  climate  and  other  circumstances  growing  out 
of  it,  may  be  made  available  to  partly  secure  the  course  of 
improvement,  and  make  this  permanent  during  a  course 
of  time,  for  some  years  and  generations  at  least.  Then 
when  favorable  variations  have  been  secured  and  made  per- 
manent, a  careful  selection  of  subjects  are  chosen  to  breed 
from  to  fix  this  intermediate  type,  which  is  then  made  the 
basis  of- another  advance.  As  in  fact,  an  invader  making  an 
attack  upon  a  strong  and  well  defended  country,  first  makes 
a  permanent  station  at  the  scene  of  some  great  victory,  and 
there  entrenches  himself,  fortifying  the  camp,  and  in  some 
cases  building  and  populating  a  strong  city,  and  from  this 
point  of  vantage  making  new  incursions,  and  so  repeating 
these  advances,  until  the  last  stronghold  has  been  captured 
and  occupied,  when  the  whole  region  then  submits  to  the 
conqueror.  So  the  breeder  makes  a  step  in  advance,  and 
there  rests  until  this  step  is  found  to  be  firm  and  fixed. 
Then  another  advance  is  made  by  another  cross  or  selection 
of  the  fixed  type  reached,  and  this  when  fixed  is  made  the 
point  from  which  another  advance  is  made.  This  is  the 
whole  history  of  the  art  of  breeding  in  this  direction,  and 
has  been  the  basis  of  the  work  and  success  of  all  the  emi- 
nent breeders  of  history.  It  is  the  way  in  which  our  various 
fixed  breeds  of  sheep  have  been  formed,  and  the  expert  of 
but  moderate  knowledge  and  experience  knows  this  to  be 
true,  as  the  result  of  his  own  work,  if  he  is  inclined  to  take 
this  as  his  guide. 

Next  this  intermediate  station,  or  situation,  or  condition, 
having  been  securely  reached  and  held,  the  most  eminent 
members  of  the  flock  are  selected  for  another  advance,  by 
whomsoever  this  advance  may  be  made.  The  hardiest  ex- 
amples of  the  breed,  so  far  acclimatated,  are  selected; 
and  these  submitted  to  the  most  careful  culture  until  the 


CLIMATIC  INFLUENCES.  119 

type  is  again  fixed  securely;  and  so  this  process  goes  on 
until  a  satisfactory  fixity  of  type  and  a  general  close  ad- 
herence to  it  of  the  individuals,  have  again  been  secured. 
And  then  it  will  be  yet  advisable  to  go  back  to  the  nearest 
fixed  type,  for  the  reinforcement  of  the  stock. 

It  is  seen  how  much  time  it  must  take  to  transfer  any 
breed  with  satisfactory  success  to  a  wholly  different  and 
distant  climate.  It  is  this  difficulty  which  leads  the  breed- 
ers of  Australia,  South  Africa,  South  America,  and  other  dis- 
tant localities,  to  continue  to  reinforce  their  flocks  with  new 
blood  from  our  herds,  and  to  force  our  own  breeders  to  re- 
turn to  the  original  flocks  from  which  their  herds  have 
sprung,  for  the  reinforcement  of  their  constitution  and  spe- 
cially desired  excellencies  for  which  at  first  the  flock  was 
chosen. 

It  will  thus  be  the  wise  course  of  breeders  seeking  the 
improvement  of  their  flocks  to  find  some  intermediate  source 
for  the  new  blood  to  be  infused;  and  to  seek  this  in  some  in- 
termediate locality  if  possible.  It  will  not  be  wise  to  go  back 
at  any  time.  This  is  only  starting  again  from  the  same 
beginning  point,  whereas  the  gain  made  should  be  the  new 
point  for  a  new  improvement.  Thus  the  American  shepherd, 
in  the  reinforcement  of  his  flock,  will  go  to  the  near-by 
breeder,  who  has  made  a  special  success  of  fixing  a  good 
type  of  excellence  on  his  stock,  and  there  procure  the  new 
blood  for  the  improvement  of  his,  not  yet  fully  improved  and 
well  developed  flock.  And  thus  it  is  that  the  professional 
breeder  must  be  the  go-between  for  the  shepherd  and  the 
original  source  of  the  type  of  sheep  kept  by  the  shepherd. 
It  is  in  vain  for  the  mere  shepherd  to  maintain  the  excel- 
lence of  any  flock  without  occasionally  and  at  short  inter- 
vals going  back  to  the  father  flock,  for  the  reinforcement 
and  improvement  of  his  sheep,  until  in  full  time  the  process 
of  full  acclimatation  has  been  completed  and  the  desired 
type  secured. 

Ataong  other  conditions  by  which  the  reproductive  pro- 
cess is  effected,  for  good  or  ill,  are  those  depending  on  the 
feeding  of  the  flock,  and  the  age  of  the  animals.  And  the 
sheep  being— as  has  been  already  said— one  of  the  most  eas- 
ily impressable  of  our  domestic  races,  it  may  be  readily 
conceived  that  these  conditions  must  have  a  large  influence 


120  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

over  the  character  of  the  progeny,  as  well  as  the  sex  of 
it.  The  sex  is  aii  all-important  matter  to  the  shepherd  whose 
flocks  are,  and  have  always  been,  valued  by  the  number  of 
them.  But  there  is  reason  to  believe,  as  the  result  of  experi- 
ence as  well  as  through  special  scientific  experiments,  that 
the  sex  of  the  produce  of  a  flock  depends  very  much  on  the 
physical  condition  of  the  sheep,  both  as  to  age  and  robust- 
ness, which  is  due  not  only  to  the  natural  vigor  and  hardi- 
ness of  a  race,  but  to  the  means  of  subsistence.  Of  course 
food  is  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  condition  of  a  flock, 
and  the  abundance  of  it  as  well  as  the  nutritive  value  of  it— 
which  is  naturally  synonymous  with  abundance— must  have 
its  effect  on  the  natural  vigor  of  the  animals,  which  too  must 
be  the  prevailing  influence  of  the  feeding. 

The  natural  law,  both  for  wild  and  domesticated  races, 
is  that  the  fittest  must  survive.  The  most  robust,  the  young 
and  ardent,  the  best  conditioned,  together  with  the  ample 
supply  of  food  by  which  these  conditions  are  secured,  then, 
will  be  the  rule  on  which  is  based  the  ratio  of  multiplica- 
tion of  a  species.  The  breeder  is  to  take  this  into  account 
as  one  of  the  most  important,  we  may  think,  of  the  rules 
by  which  he  must  be  guided  in  the  pursuit  of  profit  from  the 
flock. 

Naturally  in  any  -herd  the  younger  animals  will  be  the 
most  active  and  eager  breeders.  In  the  strife  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  ewes,  the  hardiest  ram  will  always  be  the  victor. 
The  older  ones — as  is  the  case  with  our  native  buffalo,  elk, 
deer,  and  wild  horses— are  driven  from  the  herds,  and  roam 
by  themselves  in  abjective  solitude.  This  is  one  of  the  laws 
of  existence  among  all  kinds  of  animals.  Even  savage 
races  of  mankind  follow  this  rule.  The  same  rule  prevails  in 
the  human  race,  by  virtue  of  the  selection  of  the  fittest, 
even  in  civilized  society;  for  it  is  the  most  attractive  per- 
sons that  mate,  and  the  young  are  chosen  in  preference  to 
the  old.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  for  the  great  increase 
of  population  in  nations  in  which  the  degree  of  prosperity 
is  the  measure  of  the  increase  in  numbers.  It  is  the  reason 
why  the  American  people  are  increasing  more  rapidly  than 
any  other  in  the  world,  and  the  same  is  the  reason  why  the 
French  people  is  practically  stationary  as  to  numbers.  There 
being  no  other  nation  in  the  world  than  ours,  in  which  the 


CROSS  BREEDING.  121 

means  of  living  are  so  easily  obtained,  the  marriages  are 
early,  and  the  families  are  large;  and  in  addition  to  our  na- 
tive population,  we  have  a  very  large  recruiting  to  it  an- 
nually by  young  and  vigorous  immigrants.  Of  course  any 
natural  law  applies  to  all  kinds  of  animals,  and  as  regards 
sheep,  most  easily  increased  by  prosperity  as  well  as  by 
misfortune,  the  law  prevails  with  them  to  the  fullest  ex- 
tent. 

With  our  domesticated  auiinals  it  is  the  number  of  fe- 
males, and  the  vigor  of  the  males,  by  which  the  rate  of  in- 
crease is  determined  and  governed;  so  that  the  flock  which 
is  coupled  with  young  rams  has  been  found  to  be  more  pro- 
lific of  ewe  lambs  than  that  served  by  old  rams.  This  has 
been  made  a  subject  for  accurate  experiment  in  France,  and 
the  results  have  been  shown  directly  in  the  line  here  pointed 
out.  For  instance,  a  flock  of  ewes  served  by  rams  less  than 
eighteen  mouths  old  brought  35  male  lambs  and  76  females. 
Of  the  produce,  that  from  four  year  old  ewes  amounted  to 
5  males  and  21  females.  Of  two  year  old  ewes  the  produce 
was  about  two  females  to  one  male*.  On  the  other  hand, 
ewes  served  by  four  year  old  rams  brought  54  males  and  31 
females;  of  the  three  year  old  ewes  the  produce  was  about 
evenly  divided,  but  of  two  and  four-year-olds  the  male  lambs 
were  more  than  twice  the  number  of  the  females. 

This  result  has  been  noted  in  ordinary  flocks,  and  it  goes 
to  show  that  if  this  rule  is  absolute,  which  we  may  readily 
conclude  and  admit,  as  it  is  based  on  a.  well  known  natural 
law,  which  is  operative  under  nil  circumstances,  and  founded 
on  all  reasonable  probability,  the  breeder  may  turn  it  to 
his  own  special  advantage,  as  may  be  so  fitted  and  most  ap- 
plicable to  the  nature  of  his  pursuit.  The  breeder  of  rams 
may  largely  increase  the  value  of  his  produce  by  the  greater 
number  of  salable  stock,  while  the  shepherd  desiring  num- 
ber without  regard  to  anything  but  permanent  increase,  mny 
guide  himself  in  conformity  to  this  rule. 

CROSS  BREEDING. 

In  cross  breeding,  the  shepherd  or  special  breeder  as 
well,  is  hn  mlling  very  sharp-edged  tools,  as  the  saying  goes. 
He  is  entering  on  the  most  intricate  part  of  the  business. 
But  as  it  is  safe  to  use  such  tools  when  they  are  handled 


122  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

with  skill,  so  the  shepherd  desirous  of  increasing  the  value 
of  his  Hock  for  mutton,  or  fleece,  may  do  so  with  success 
if  the  crossing  is  dime  judiciously.  This  is,  as  has  been  pre- 
viously stated,  a  common  practice  among  the  German  shep- 
herds who  employ  experts  to  choose  the  rams  that  are  best 
fitted  for  the  special  use  for  which  they  are  desired. 

The  crossing  of  sheep  is  a  distinctly  temporary  purpose. 
It  may  be  to  get  early  lambs,  or  black-faced  lambs  which  in 
most  of  the  lamb  markets  a*re  most  highly  valued  by  the 
butchers,  and  justly  so  on  account  of  their  size,  solid,  com- 
pact form,  and  early  maturing.  When  extra  early  lambs, 
known  as  house  lambs  are  the  end  in  view,  the  cross  breed- 
ing is  indispensable,  and  it  has  long  been' and  still  is  the  pre- 
vailing custom  in  England,  from  which  country  the  fashion 
has  been  introduced  here,  to  keep  Dorset  ewes  for  this  pur- 
pose, crossing  a  Southdown  or  Shropshire  ram  on  these 
ewes,  so  as  to  bring  the  lamb  about  September;  when  it  is 
ready  for  market  after  having  been  reared  in  the  house  by 
the  Christmas  holidays.  As  the  ewes  of  this  breed  will 
take  the  ram  at  any  time  of  the  year,  they  are  bred  to  one 
of  their  own  breed  to  reinforce  the  flock.  For  this  use  this 
breed  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  kinds  of  sheep.  It  should 
be  noted  that  the  Somerset  ewes  bred  in  the  adjoining 
county  to  Dorset,  and  which  has  precisely  the  same  mild 
Winter  climate  and  agricultural  character,  are  practically, 
and  all  but  nominally,  of  the  same  habits  and  breeding  as 
the  Dorsets.  The  greatest  scope,  however,  for  cross  breed- 
ing is  on  the  native  sheep  which,  although  profitable  on  the 
rough,  sparse  pasture  fields  of  the  ordinary  farms,  but  es- 
pecially in  the  Southern  States,  do  not  return  sufficient 
profit  for  the  higher  farming  elsewhere.  Here  it  is  fre- 
quently desirable  to  rear  cross  bred  sheep  for  both  the  fleece 
and  for  the  carcass.  Doubtless  it  is  most  desirable  in  such 
cases  to  procure  good  rams,  of  whatever  breeds  may  be 
most  desired,  to  cross  on  the  flocks  for  the  purpose  of  get- 
ting lambs  which  are  excellent  feeders,  and  by  providing 
such  food  crops  as  rape  or  turnips,  or  even  sugar  beets,  or  for 
feeding  in  the  vicinity  of  some  sugar  factory,  on  the  waste 
pulp  of  the  beets,  along  with  the  home-grown  grain  and 
coarse  fodder. 

On  the  extensive  ranges  of  the  West,   from   South  to 


CROSS  BREEDING.  123 

North,  this  practice  may  be  made  extremely  profitable,  for 
the  wool  so  procured;  and  this  is  done  in  localities  where  it 
mjirlit  be  inconvenient  to  keep  the  higher  classes  of  sheep 
for  the  main  flocks.  In  this  way, -by  the  use  of  a  Cotswold, 
Shropshire,  Leicester,  or  Lincoln  rain— in  fact  of  any  of  the 
special  heavy-bodied  and  fleeced  rams— the  produce  may 
be  doubled  with  ease,  and  more  profit,  than  the  mere 
doubling  of  the  fleeces,  by  the  heavier  carcass.  The  first 
cross  so  made  is  rarely  disappointing  to  the  flockmaster. 
It  is  the  basis  of  the  wool  product  of  those  vast  sheep  ranges 
of  Australia,  Argentina,  New  Zealand,  and  South  Africa, 
from  whence  a  large  business  in  shipping  the  frozen  car- 
casses in  the  cold-storage  steamers  expressly  fitted  for  this 
extensive  and  constantly  increasing  trade,  is  also  thus  se- 
cured. 

The  scientific  process  of  cross  breeding  is  based  on  the 
well  established  principle  that  the  first  cross  is  always  sat- 
isfactory. The  natural  tendency  to  go  back  to  the  original 
coarse  or  inferior  race  is  not  shown  in  the  first  cross.  And 
by  judicious  selection  of  this  cross  bred  progeny  it  is  possible 
to  make  in  time  a  settled  and  acclimated  cross  breed  which 
may  become  sufficiently  prominent  under  a  wide  course 
of  selection  and  breeding  during-  a  few  years.  But  to  do 
this  the  ram  is  to  be  changed  yearly,  securing  one  from  an 
unrelated  herd  with  the  special  needed  character  for  the  fur- 
ther improvement  of  the  flock,  by  the  weeding  out  of  inferior 
ewes,  and  the  retention  of  those  which  show  the  most 
marked  likeness  to  the  parent  ram.  It  is  a  frequent  custom 
among  the  Australian  flockmasters  to  change  the  ram  every 
year  with  neighbors,  or  when  large  flocks  are  kept  to  divide 
them  up  on  the  ranges,  changing  the  rams  from  one  to  the 
other.  In  this  way  a  valuable  cross  breed  is  established  in 
time,  but  it  is  scarcely  ever  so  firmly  established  on  account 
of  the  climatic  difficulties  in  the  wray,  as  have  been  men- 
tioned above  in  this  chapter,  as  to  remove  the  necessity  for 
the  infusion  of  new  blood  at  such  times  as  the  need  for  the 
renovation  may  become  apparent. 

Only  a  few  men  are  adapted  by  natural  affinity  and 
shrewdness  to  succeed  as  breeders  of  a  mixed  flock.  Long 
years  and  close  study,  with  a  natural  aptitude  to  judge  of 
needs,  and  the  means  of  supplying  them,  are  indispensable 


124  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

for  success  in  this  line.  And  in  such  instances  as  where 
extensive  flocks  are  owned  by  one  master,  and  a  special 
flock  for  breeding  rains  for  home  use  is  kept,  it  is  decidedly 
desirable  to  employ,  permanently  if  possible,  at  least  one 
shepherd  who  is  capable  of  taking  charge  of  this  ram  breed- 
ing flock,  and  of  choosing  out  of  it  the  rams  best  suited  for 
the  use  of  the  general  flocks,  as  may  need  to  be  selected 
year  by  year. 

INFLUENCE  OF  SOILS  ON  THE  HEALTH 
OF    SHEEP. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  only  healthy  sheep  can  be 
profitable  to  the  shepherd.  It  may  not  be  that  the  death 
rate  is  excessive,  the  meue  weakness  of  the  system,  for 
want  of  the  vigorous  action  of  the  vital  functions,  is  suffi- 
cient to  cause  a  low  state  of  health,  first  to  be  noticed  in  the 
failure  of  the  fleece,  and  the  subjection  of  the  flock  to  fre- 
quent attacks  of  illness.  Some  diseases,  such  as  myelitis, 
for  instance,  which  is  known  by  old-fashioned  shepherds  as 
rickets  (paralysis  of  the  hind  parts,  and  sometimes  of  the 
brain)  of  which  the  most  prominent  symptom  is  that  com- 
monly known  as  staggers,  when  the  sheep  ntn  about  evi- 
dently blind  to  a  varying  degree,  so  that  they  stumble  over 
every  obstacle  in  their  way,  or  wander  aimlessly  about, 
finally  dying  of  simple  exhaustion,  and  others  of  the  same 
nature  due  to  the  disturbance  of  the  functions  of  the  brain, 
and  all  due  to  want  of  natural  vigor,  all  those  are  found  to 
be  most  prevalent  on  certain  kinds  of  soils,  and  do  not  exist 
on  others. 

Of  course,  we  understand  that  the  nature  of  the  soil 
regulates,  and  very  seriously  affects,  the  actual  composition 
of  the  herbage  of  cultivated  crops  grown.  Thus  we  know 
that  clover— for  instance— has  a  largely  varying  proportion 
of  lime  and  potash  in  its  composition,  in  some  cases  having 
a  largely  increased  quantity  of  one  of  these,  and  in  others 
a  great  deficiency.  And  if  so,  it  must  follow  that  other 
kinds  of  herbage  must  be  affected  in  the  same  way.  Thus 
we  know  that  on  some  soils  the  ash  of  clover  has  easy  fif- 
teen per  cent  of  potash  in  it,  while  on  other  soils  there  is 
fifty  per  cent;  while  the  lime  varies  in  the  inverse  propor- 
tion of  from  forty  to  only  twenty-five  per  cent.  And  it  is 


INFLUENCE  OF  SOILS.  125 

the  fact  that  on  such  lands  as  have  this  excessive  quantity 
of  potash,  and  the  least  of  lime,  sheep  are  subject  to  these 
various  diseases  of  the  nervous  system  mentioned  above, 
and  that  the  quality  of  the  fleece  will  suffer  with  the  health 
of  the  animal. 

Potash  in  excess  is  disastrous  to  all  kinds  of  domestic 
animals.  It  causes  a  similar  disease  in  pigs  to  the  preva- 
lent one  in  sheep,  the  symptoms  of  which  most  noticeable 
are  loss  of  power  of  the  nervous  system,  with  inability  to 
use  the  hind  limbs.  And  we  cannot  neglect  this  fact  when 
considering  this  great  influence  of  the  soil  on  the  character 
of  the  growths  of  it,  by  which  animals  feeding  on  these 
products  of  these  lauds  are  affected.  Wool  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  sulphur,  and  such  plants  as  turnips,  rape,  clover, 
tares,  cabbage  and  alfalfa,  in  all  of  which  there  is  a  large 
proportion  of  this  indispensable  element  of  the  fleece,  are 
well  known  to  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  shepherd. 

It  is  equally  a  fact  that  those  localities  in  which  the  best 
sheep  are  reared,  such  as  Vermont,  Western  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  generally  where  limestone  prevails, 
have  been  the  homes  of  the  finest  of  the  flocks.  This  is  espe- 
cially the  fact  in  England  and  Scotland;  and  equally  that 
the  old  red  sandstone,  intermingled  with  a  fossiliferous 
limestone,  have  been  the  homes  in  which  the  finest  flocks 
of  our  best  sheep  have  been  reared. 

The  Southdown  has  its  home  on  the  chalk  lands  of  Cen- 
tral England  where  the  downs,  lying  on  this  lime  formation, 
produce  the  sweetest  and  most  healthful  pasture  grasses, 
short,  but  dense,  and  of  the  highest  nutritive  value.  The  best 
of  the  Yorkshire  wools,  and  the  best  mutton  sheep  of  that 
county,  are  grown  on  a  magnesiau  limestone  soil.  The  Lin- 
coln yields  its  lustrious  fleeces  on  a  similar  geological  forma- 
tion, formed  by  the  disintegration  of  the  same  kind  of  rocks, 
but  covered  with  a  fertile  soil  in  which  the  herbage  con- 
tains all  the  necessary  elements  for  the  nutriment  of  this 
fine  breed.  The  mixed  lime  and  sandstone  soils  of  the  ad- 
joining County  of  Nottingham  produce  equally  good  wools; 
and  the  Lincolns  transferred  thither  maintain  their  original 
excellence.  The  chalk  soil  of  Kent  feeds  the  Romney  Marsh 
sheep.  The  Cheviot  excels  on  its  same  named  hills  of  which 
the  soil  is  trap  and  granite  with  an  ample  proportion  of  lime, 


120  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

and  it  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  Black-faced  Highland 
sheep  is  much  improved  when  it  is  transferred  for  final  feed- 
ing to  the  same  kinds  of  soil,  and  the  rich  pastures  of  Cen- 
tral England.  The  Cotswold  had  its  home  on  the  limestone 
hills  of  which  the  rich  soil  furnished  the  sweetest  and  most 
nutritious  pastures.  And  generally,  it  has  been  found  that 
the  flocks  least  subject  to  the  many  zlls  of  which  the  sheep 
is  pre-eminently  heir  to,  have  been  fed  and  reared  where 
limestone  prevails,  or  where  the  soil  is  well  drained  and 
yields  the  most  perfect  growth  of  the  best  herbage.  It  is 
also  to  be  remarked  that  on  the  light  lands  of  Norfolk, 
where  the  turnip  and  its  related  fodder  crops  grow  to  per- 
fection (as  witness  the  invaluable  white  Norfolk  turnip, 
there  grown  for  feedings  flocks  in  the  fields  along  with 
rape  and  other  crops  that  are  rich  in  sulphur),  there  the 
sheep  bring  the  most  satisfactory  results  to  the  feeders, 
who  go  to  distant  pastures  to  procure  the  stock  for  this  feed- 
ing by  which  the  farms  are  enriched.  Low  lying  meadow 
lands  that  are  made  up  of  the  debris  of  such  geological 
formations,  but  when  thoroughly  well  drained— for  the 
sheep  must  have  a  dry  foot— have  been  found  excellently 
well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  sheep,  aind  it  is  only  on  these 
low  lying  lands,  undrained,  that  the  destructive  liver  fluke 
is  found  injurious. 

These  suggestions  are  made  to  stimulate  the  study  of 
this  most  important  matter,  by  American  shepherds,  so  that 
in  selecting  farms  or  range  feeding  grounds,  a  proper  and 
sufficient  study  of  the  geological  conditions  of  the  locality 
may  be  made. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  SCIENCE  AND  AIIT  OF  FEEDING. 

"The  feeding  of  cattle  is  the  most  important  part  of  agri- 
culture." These  words  appear  in  a  work  on  agriculture  by 
that  renowned  writer  and  'excellent  farmer,  Cicero,  who 
lived  two  thousand  years  ago.  And  we  may  well  believe 
that  he,  who  was  an  extensive  owner  of  sheep  of  the  finest 
quality  of  the  then  race  of  which,  our  invaluable  Merino 
is  a  direct  descendant,  gave  due  credit  to  the  sheep  as  being 
the  most  valuable  of  all  domestic  animals  in  regard  to  the 
right  and  proper  feeding  of  it.  It  was  not  only  that  the 
food  nourished  animals  reared  on  the  farm,  and  so  made 
a  profit  from  the  flesh  and  the  fleece,  but  that  in  the  due 
course  of  nature  the  produce  of  the  land  being  fed  to  cattle — 
in  which  sheep  were,  and  are  always,  included  as  one 
kind  of  the  class  of  domestic  animals— not  only  nourished 
the  animals  fed,  but  left  the  greater  part  of  it  to  return  to 
the  land  to  fertilize  it  and  so  cause  it  to  return  still  more 
crops  for  feeding  more  cattle.  And  if  we  study  carefully 
the  writings  of  the  many  ancient  authors,  poets  and  prose 
writers,  which  are  extant,  we  shall  discover  that  what  they 
did  not  know  of  the  art  and  practice  of  agriculture  is  of 
very  little  account  to-day.  What  we  know,  which  they  did 
not,  is  simply  the  inner  causes  of  things  which  they  were 
well  acquainted  writh,  but  not  the  reasons  why  they 
were  so,  which  is  really  all  there  is  in  the  science  of  the 
art  and  practice.  Thus  it  is  that  we  may  learn  much  that  is 
valuable  from  these  ancient  writers,  and  get,  through  the 
details  of  their  practice,  invaluable  illustrations  in  regard  to 
the  axioms  and  rules  of  modern  scientific  practice  in  every 
department  of  agriculture. 

So  important  a  matter  then  as  the  feeding  of  his  flock  to 
the  intelligent  shepherd,  should  be  studied  scientifically, 
first;  and  then  the  rules  and  suggestions  to  be  derived  from 


128  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

this  study,  carefully  made,  will  easily  form  the  practice  to 
be  followed. 

"Out  of  nothing,  nothing  comes,"  is  another  ancient  piece 
of  wisdom.  We  can  never  get  anything  out  of  nothing.  We 
must  feed  a  sheep  before  we  can  expect  it  to  return  to  us 
anything  we  may  expect.  The  science  of  this  art  of  feeding, 
first  teaches  us  of  what  an  animal  is  composed,  by  what  its 
life— its  very  breath— is  supported;  of  what  its  flesh,  boue; 
wool,  and  every  other  part  of  it,  or  its  products,  consists; 
what  is  wranted  is  the  natural  functions  of  the  animal,  and 
thus  precisely  what  food  the  animal  should  receive  in  any 
specified  time  to  support  it  in  the  manner  due  to  our  ex- 
pectation of  profit  from  it.  In  short  the  figures  which  the 
scientific  expert  gives  us  in  these  respects  are  like  the  book 
accounts  of  a  business  man,  in  which  a  person  is  charged 
with  what  he  receives,  and  credited  with  what  he  returns. 
And  by  a  great  amount  of  accurate  experiment  we  have  got 
this  matter  down  to  such  a  fine  point,  that  the  shepherd— as 
any  other  feeder  of  animals — may  fix  on  a  certain  ration  for 
his  sheep,  and  so  get  every  advantage  he  desires  for  their 
welfare  and  profitable  use,  at  the  least  possible  cost. 

To  ascertain  the  character  of  the  food  best  fitted  for  sheep 
we  may  begin  by  considering  the  actual  composition  of  an 
animal,  which  weighed  154  Ibs,,  of  which  the  fleece  weighed 
ten  pounds. 

The  body  is  made  up  of: 

LBS.  OZ.  GRAINS. 

Oxygen Ill 

Hydrogen 14 

Carbon 21 

Nitrogen 3  10 

Phosphorus 1  2  88 

Lime 2 

Sulphur —  219 

Chlorine -  2  47 

Sodium  —  2  116 

Potasium —  290 

Iron '. —  100 

Magnesium —  —  12 

Silica -  2 

The  ordinary  compound  materials  of  the  body  of  the 
sheep  are  given  as  follows: 

LBS.  OK. 

Water Ill 

Gelatin 15 

Albumen 4  3 

Fibrin 4  4 

Fat 12 

Ashes  7  9 


SCIENCE   AND  ART   OF   FEEDING.  129 

The  composition  of  the  fleece,  per  cent  of  its  pure  dry 
wool,  is: 

Carbon 49.25 

Hydrogen 7  57 

Nitrogen 15.86 

Oxygen 23.66 

Sulphur 3.66 

Total 100.00 

The  yolk,  or  suint,  consists  of: 

Potash,  as  carbonate 86.78  per  cent. 

Potash,  as  chloride 6.18       " 

Potash,  as  sulphate 2.83       " 

Other  substances 4.21       " 


Total 100.00 

Besides  the  yolk,  which  is  soluble  in  water,  there  is 
seven  to  ten  per  cent  of  grease  or  oil. 

It  will  be  evident  that  as  the  sheep  is  kept  for  its  wool 
as  well  as  for  its  flesh,  the  fleece  is  to  be  considered  as  a 
part  of  the  animal  to  be  provided  for  in  the  feeding.  But  wool 
is  made  up  of  almost  precisely  the  same  elements  as  skin, 
hair,  or  horn,  showing  that  all  these  parts  of  an  animal 
are  really  parts  of  the  skin,  and  a  mere  change  of  the  form 
of  it.  And  the  only  difference  between  the  flesh  of  an  ani- 
mal and  the  skin,  with  its  natural  covering,  and  its  out- 
growths, is  the  somewhat  larger  proportion  of  nitrogen  in 
the  latter  than  in  the  flesh.  This  is  shown  by  these 
figures: 

CARBON.     HYDROGEN.     NITROGEN.     °X7®^*™I> 

SUI>FHUK. 

Flesh 5183  7.57  15.01  25.60 

Skin 50.99  7.07  18.72  23.22 

Wool 50.65  7.03  17.71  24.61 

Hair 51.53  6.69  17.94  23.84 

Horn 51.99  672  1T.23  24.01 

A  very  cursory  examination  and  study  of  these  figures 
will  go  to  show  the  almost  perfect  similarity  between  all 
these  parts  of  an  animal,  and  how  nature  may  vary  the 
character  of  her  products  in  form,  but  yet  preserve  the  sim- 
ilarity of  the  materials  of  which  they  are  made  up. 

Perceiving  of  what  raw  materials  a  sheep  is.  made 
up  we  must  think  of  what  materials  the  food  for  the  pro- 
duction of  these  parts  of  the  sheep,  must  consist.  But  in 
passing,  let  us  consider  for  a  moment  one  fact.  We  see  that 
the  horn  of  a  Merino  sheep,  or  a  Dorset,  has  some  pounds  of 
precisely  the  same  materials  as  so  much  wool  contains.  Then, 


130  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP 

as  the  .horns  do  not  add  one  cent  to  the  value  of  an  animal, 
and  has  really  so  many  pounds  of  matter  in  them  that 
might,  if  turned  that  way,  add  so  much  to  the  weight  of  the 
fleece,  it  follows  that  the  shepherd  may  ask  himself  this 
pertinent  question,  Why  waste  food  in  the  making  of  a  pair 
of  seven  or  eight  pound  horns,  instead  of  breeding  off 
these  horns  and  making  more  wool  of  the  food  and  nutri- 
ment so  used  to  waste? 

But  this  is  only  one  part  of  the  subject  of  the  natural 
necessities  of  the  animal.  Food  supports  life,  as  well  as 
growth.  Life  is  the  first  to  be  considered.  And  the  support 
of  this  calls  for  a  large  quantity  of  nutriment.  It  may  be 
said  that  life  is  supported  by  heat.  The  process  of  breath- 
ing, by  which  the  blood  ic  purified  by  every  breath  drawn, 
is  a  chemical  operation  which  is  well  worth  study.  As  the 
blood  circulates  through  the  system  it  takes  up  a  largo 
quantity  of  waste  matter,  the  product  of  the  muscular  move- 
ment of  the  animal,  and  the  action  of  every  vital  organ. 
The  bright  red,  pure  blood,  which  is  forced  by  the  muscular 
action  of  the  heart  through  the  arteries,  by  which  it  is  car- 
ried to  the  capillaries  or  minute  veins  just  under,  and  all 
through  the  skin;  and  these  are  so  exceedingly  fine,  and  are 
so  closely  placed  in  a  dense  network  that  the  point  of  the 
finest  needle  cannot  penetrate  the  skin,  anywhere,  with- 
out wounding  one  or  more  of  them  and  drawing 
blood;  this  blood  thus  passing  through  these  minute 
veins  supply  every  part  of  the  body  with  the  nutri- 
ment that  is  derived  from  the  food,  and  at  the 
same  time  wash,  as  it  were,  away  all  the  impurities  caused 
by  the  constant  action  of  the  muscles,  and  then  changing 
from  the  bright  crimson  of  the  arterial  blood,  to  a  dark,  al- 
most black,  color,  returns  to  the  heart,  by  whose  pulsation- 
like  that  of  a  pump— this  dark  blood  is  forced  into  the  lungs 
where  it  is  acted  upon  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air  breathed. 
This  oxygen  consumes  these  impurities.  Some  of  them  are 
excreted  by  the  skin  in  the  form  of  perspiration,  which  is 
always  going  on,  whether  in  heat  or  cold,  but  mostly  un- 
der the  influence  of  heat.  This  consumption  of  this  impure 
matter  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air  breathed  into  the  lungs,  is 
equivalent  to  a  burning  up  of  these  impurities  mostly  con- 
sisting of  carbonaceous  matters,  and  by  this  burning,  heat 


SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  FEEDING.  131 

is  formed,  by  which  the  aiiimal  is  kept  warm,  and  this  heat 
is  known  as  the  vital  heat  of  the  body,  and  it  is  indispeusa- 
ble  to  the  continuation  of  the  life  of  the  animal. 

Now  it  is  well  known  that  when  carbon  and  oxygen 
unite,  heat  is  formed,  and  this  is  the  same  whether  it  is  pro- 
duced by  the  consumption  of  the  carbon  in  a  stove,  or  in  a 
fire  of  any  kind,  or  in  the  lungs  of  a  sheep  or  other  animal. 
So  thnt  it  follows  that  the  carbon  in  the  food  is  actually 
consumed  in  the  animal  and  produces  heat.  This  carbon  of 
the  food  consists  of  the  starch,  the  sugar  —  which  is  pro- 
duced from  the  starch  —  and  as  well,  of  any  of  the  other 
carbonaceous  matters  of  the  food  that  are  capable  of  diges- 
tion, and  these  we  call  the  carbo-hydrates  of  the  food,  be- 
cause they  all  consist  of  carbon  and  water,  which  is  made 
up  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  These  carbonaceous  matters 
of  the  food  we  call  heat  formers,  for  these  reasons  set  forth. 
And  these  make  up  the  larger  portion  of  all  food  of 
animals. 

Now  just  here  for  a  simple  illustration  of—what  we  are 
approaching—  the  composition  of  a  typical  ration  for  any 
farm  animal,  as  thus: 

Standard  feeding  rations  for  100  Ibs.  live  weight  — 

For  each  100  Ibs.  live  weight  ..................  2l/z  pounds 

Total  dry  substance  ...........................  2         " 

Consisting  — 

Protein  ........................................  H 

Carbo-hydrates  ................................  1  %      " 

Fat  .............................................  Ys      " 


This  ration  may  be  taken  as  a  standard  for  a  full-fed 
sheep  of  one  hundred  pounds  live  weight,  or  for  any  other 
farm  animal  kept  for  product,  as  a  cow  in  milk. 

There  is  a  waste  of  other  food  in  the  mere  living  of  any 
animal.  If  we  take  notice  we  may  see  the  act  of  breath- 
ing and  of  moving  causes  some  exertion  of  the  muscles.  This 
is  called  work,  to  the  extent  that  the  muscular  system  is  in 
motion,  and  every  motion  of  an  animal  uses  up  some  of  the 
fleshy  muscular  matter,  which  is  wasted,  and  carried  off 
from  the  system  by  the  kidneys,  which  have  a  most  import- 
ant function  in  thus  purifying  the  blood  of  this  waste  mat- 
ter. So  that  a  sufficient  supply  of  this  flesh  forming  matter 
of  *he  food  is  to  be  furnished  to  make  up  this  waste,  as  well 
as  to  provide  for  the  growth  of  the  animal.  This  flesh  form- 


132  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

ing  mutter  is  called  the  protein  of  the  food,  this  word  signi- 
fying the  first  necessity  of  life. 

Then  we  have  to  supply  the  fat.  This  is  generally 
laid  up  iti  the  manner  we  all  know  in  the  animal,  through 
its  flesh,  and  on  the  interior  of  the  body;  the  surplus  is  de- 
posited on  the  outer  part  under  the  skin. 

Thus  we  have  the  protein,  the  carbo-hydrates,  and  the 
fat,  as  the  three  elements  of  nutrition  of  the  animal  to  be 
supplied  by  the  food. 

Foods  of  course  vary  in  composition.  Some  consist  of 
the  carbo-hydrates  mostly,  as  corn;  others  are  richer  in  pro- 
tein, as  bran:  and  some  have  more  fat  than  others.  As  a 
guide  in  the  choice  of  the  various  kinds  of  foods  we  have 
.  some  tables  of  the  composition  of  those  in  common  use, 
with  what  is  called  the  nutritive  ratio  given  in  a  separate 
column.  It  is  a  simple  matter  to  choose  the  most  suitable 
foods  for  feeding  from  the  list  given,  and  by  noting  the 
nutritive  ratio,  attached  in  the  column  provided  for  it,  it  is 
an  easy  matter  for  the  careful  feeder  to  make  up  such  n 
ration  as  will  be  at  once  the  best  for  the  feeding  effect, 
and  for  the  value  of  it  in  the  markets  when  any  purchased 
foods  are  needed. 

Further  on  we  shall  return  to  this  part  of  the  subject, 
considering  at  present  the  matter  from  its  practical  point  of 
view. 

The  feeding  of  sheep  is  the  most  important  part  of  the 
process  of  improvement.  Looking  back  over  the  history 
of  this  animal  we  shall  find  that  the  feeding  has  always  been 
the  first  part  of  the  process  of  improvement.  This  is  rea- 
sonable as  well  as  indisputable,  and  we  may  take  it  as  the 
first  and  fundamental  part  of  improvement,  and  the  indis- 
pensable preliminary  to  better  breeding.  For  its  character- 
istics are  inherited,  as  we  must  believe,  then  the  habit  of  eating 
and  digesting  the  largest  quantity  of  the  best  food,  and  turn- 
ing this  to  growth  of  carcass  or  fleece,  must  be  the  first 
weans  of  approach  to  an  improved  condition  and  standard. 
So  that  the  feeding  must  come  first,  and  this  inheritable  apti- 
tude for  the  making  of  growth,  or  of  early  maturity,  be 
made  the  basis  of  the  improvement  desired.  Although  this 
view  is  stubbornly  contested  by  some  of  the  scientific  people, 
and  breeding  is  placed  first  in  this  category  of  means  of  im- 


SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  FEEDING.  133 

proving  our  domestic  animals,  it  seems  that  such  a  view  is 
wholly  untenable,  and  quite  opposed  by  the  practice  and  re- 
sults of  breeding.  It  is  unreasonable  as  well,  for  if  the  breed- 
ers' axiom— like  produces  like— is  true  and  well  founded, 
then  we  must  first  make  the  parent  what  we  wish,  as  far 
as  we  can  by  stimulating  the  ability  to  turn  good  food  Into 
growth,  and  then  by  breeding  from  these  improved  feeders 
get  a  progeny  upon  which  we  may  be  able  to  improve  still 
further  in  this  direction.  Were  it  otherwise,  we  should  have 
no  starting  point  to  breed  from  for  the  improvement  of  the 
flocks,  and  it  has  been  shown  in  the  previous  chapter  that 
the  art  and  science  of  breeding  are  both  founded,  as  on  the 
most  unmistakable  and  the  most  solid  basis  of  perpetuating 
by  breeding,  those  animals  together,  one  of  whom  at  least, 
but  both  if  possible,  have  previously  undergone  a  process  of 
improvement  by  feeding,  and  the  best  feeders  have  been 
invariably  chosen  by  the  most  successful  masters  of  the  art, 
as  the  means  of  fixing  on  the  progeny  their  habit  and  procliv- 
ity of  turning  the  most  food  possible  into  growth  of  carcass 
of  the  best  form,  and  into  a  fleece  of  the  most  valuable  wool. 
If  the  art  of  feeding  does  not  come  before,  and  as  a  prelimi- 
nary to  that  of  breeding,  all  knowledge  and  experience  go  for 
nothing. 

Feeding  is  the  main  business  of  the  mutton,  producer. 
But  as  has  been  shown,  that  the  wool  is  a  mere  outgrowth 
of  the  flesh  and  skin,  partaking  as  closely  as  may  be  of  the 
character  and  substance  of  the  flesh,  we  cannot  improve  the 
flesh  of  a  sheep  without  at  the  same  time  improving  the 
fleece.  These  go  together.  But  so  far  the  art  of  the  feeder 
has  been  employed  in  the  development  of  a  fine  carcass  of 
the  best  meat,  yet  at  the  same  time  the  fleece  has  been 
improved  in  length  and  quality  of  staple.  Every  expert 
knows,  and  every  shepherd  should  know,  that  wool  is  seri- 
ously damaged  by  poor  feeding;  every  set  back  of  the  sheep 
is  marked  by  a  weak  spot  in  the  fleece  in  which  the  fiber 
breaks,  and  the  wool  is  fit  only  for  the  cheapest  kinds  of 
products.  The  growth  is  also  arrested,  and  as  an  example  of 
the  need  for  good  feeding  for  a  good  fleece,  it  may  be  shown 
that  as  soon  as  the  sheep  is  shorn,  and  the  new  growth  of  the 
fleece  calls  for  adequate  nutriment,  the  appetite  of  a  sheep  is 
notably  increased,  and  if  it  is  not  duly  supplied  with  the 


134  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

Quantity  and  kind  of  food  needed,  the  sheep  becomes  thin, 
or  if  the  carcass  grows  the  fleece  does  not. 

It  has  been  shown  previously  in  this  chapter  how  the 
wool  of  a  sheep  is  made  up,  of  so  much  nitrogen,  especially. 
This  is  the  chief  element,  as  has  been  said  of  the  protein  of 
the  food.  It  is  the  fact,  that  in  the  nutrition  of  an  animal, 
the  elements  of  the  food  go  first  to  sustain  the  vital  func- 
tions, for  an  animal  will  live  although  it  loses  flesh  and 
becomes  thin  and  poor.  Thus  the  needs  for  life,  the  vital  life, 
will  be  supplied  first,  and  then  the  secondary  product— the 
flesh— is  provided  for,  and  last  of  all  the  fleece.  Then  fat  is 
deposited  in  the  tissues,  and  on  the  inside  first,  and  the  sur- 
plus is  laid  on  the  carcass  under  the  skin.  Thus  it  is  that 
the  protein  of  the  food  is  the  main  element  for  the  full  nutri- 
tion of  the  sheep.  And  in  choosing  foods  those  most  rich  in 
this  element  are  first  called  for. 

No  animal  will  fatten  except  on  the  surplus  nutriment 
supplied  to  it  in  the  food.  Fat  is  laid  up  in  an  animal  as  a 
source  of  subsistence  in  case  of  need,  to  be  drawn  upon  when 
the  food  is  not  in  full  supply.  This  is  the  well  known 
case  in  the  hibernating  animals,  who  hide  in  burrows  un- 
derground during  the  Winter,  and  live  without  food,  as  is 
the  common  saying  as  to  bears,  who  are  alleged  by  some 
jocular  individuals  to  live  through  the  Winter  by  sucking 
their  paws.  While  this  is  not  supposable  as  a  process  of  nu- 
trition, yet  they  are  well  known  to  feed  voraciously  on  the 
nuts  of  the  woods,  and  hide  in  the  warmest  covert  to  be 
found  in  the  cold  weather,  coming  out  in  the  spring  thin  and 
poor  in  flesh,  and  devoid  of  fat.  Thus  it  is  that  the  surplus 
of  the  late  Summer's  food  is  expended  in  laying  fat,  on  the 
inside  chiefly,  but  as  well  on  the  outside,  for  fat  is  an  excel- 
lent non-conductor  of  heat,  and  thus  a,cts  as  a  most  useful 
blanket  around  the  sleeping  animal,  which  taking  no  exer- 
cise wastes  little  of  its  substance,  and  using  up  the  surplus 
fat  exists  comfortably  during  its  several  months  of  hiber- 
nation. Thus  the  fall  months  are  naturally  the  best  for 
the  fattening  of  sheep,  who,  laying  up  fat,  wi-H.  not  waste  the 
surplus  food  in  the  production  of  heat,  and  in  so  far  as  they 
are  well  sheltered  from  the  cold,  and  the  fleece  having  made 
a  good  growth  up  to  this  time,  the  sheep  fatten  quickly.  But 


SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  FEEDING.  135 

tbe  best  foods  for  this  fattening  process  are  those  rich  in  the 
protein  substances. 

An  example  of  this  may  be  given: 

A  lot  of  sheep  were  fed  at  one  of  the  German  experiment 
stations.  They  were  divided  into  four  groups,  and  each  lot 
were  fed  differently  as  to  the  proportion  of  the  protein.  The 
first  lot  were  fed  a  ration  made  up  of  0.220  parts  of  protein, 
1.648  parts  of  carbo-hydrates,  the  total  food  thus  being 
equivalent  to  1.868  Ibs.  daily  of  food  actually  digested.  The 
nutritive  ratio — that  is  the  proportion  of  the  protein  to  the 
carbo-hydrates — was  1  of  the  former  to  T1/^  of  the  latter. 
The  actual  increase  in  \veight  of  this  lot  was  a  little  less 
than  two  ounces  daily.  The  dressed  weight  of  the  carcass 
was  48  per  cent  of  the  live  weight.  The  last  lot  of  the  four 
were  fed  a  ration  of  0.384  of  protein,  with  1.538  of  carbo-hy- 
drates, the  total  food  being  equal  to  1.922  Ibs.  daily.  The  nu- 
tritive ratio  was  1  of  protein  to  4  of  the  carbo-hydrates.  The 
increase  in  weight  of  this  lot  was  a  little  over  three  ounces 
a  day,  and  the  proportion  of  dressed  weight  was  55  per  cent 
of  the  live  weight. 

This  experiment  was  fully  corroborated  by  several  others 
having  similar  results.  The  Canadian  farmers  and  shep- 
herds use  peas  extensively  in  fattening  sheep,  as  well  as  pigs. 
Indeed  it  is  the  main  feed  for  this  use.  No  other  sheep 
farmers  in  the  world  make  better  results  in  feeding  than 
these,  and  the  English  sheep  feeders  following  this  rule, 
feed  largely  of  beans,  equally  rich  in  protein.  And  no  better 
feeders  of  mutton  or  growers  of  wool  exist.  Thus  science 
and  practice  confirm  each  other,  as  is  always  the  case  when 
facts  are  in  question. 

Every  well  informed  shepherd  is  fully  cognizant  of  what 
the  French  have  done  in  regard  to  their  fine  Merinos,  what- 
ever sub-name  they  may  go  by — Rambouillet,  Delaines,  or 
Black-Tops— and  how  they  have  more  than  doubled  the  car- 
cass weight,  and  the  weight  of  the  fleece  at  the  same  time, 
lessening  the  waste  of  yolk  and  grease  in  the  wool.  And  we 
all  know  what  our  own  breeders  have  done  with  the  old 
Spanish  Merino.  These  invaluable  results  are  simply  the 
effects  of  feeding  first  and  last;  of  course  the  breeding  has 
concentrated  these  results  in  the  best  selected  sheep,  and  this 
has  made  the  improvement  permanent  by  inherited  tendency. 


136  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

These  masterpieces  of  sheep  culture,  as  well  as  the  quite 
equal  work  of  a  full  century  of  the  English  breeders,  has  only 
concentrated  the  excellent  feeding  qualities  of  the  best  sheep, 
and  fixed  the  type  so  that  it  is  inherited  with  certainty 

We  cannot  ignore  the  excellent  results  of  feeding  upon 
the  fleece.  This,  as  has  been  said,  is  a  similar  product  to 
the  hair  of  other  animals.  Every  one  acquainted  with  the 
best  breeds  of  cattle  knows  how  the  hair  is  softened,  and  in- 
creased in  thickness  upon  the  skin  of  those  animals  having 
the  mellow  touch  due  to  the  layer  of  fat  immediately  under 
the  skin.  This  is  a  similar  instance,  to  be  well  considered, 
for  all  animals  are  made  of  one  blood,  and  amenable  to  the 
same  natural  laws;  and  what  happens  in  the  feeding  of  cat- 
tle must  apply  equally  to  the  feeding  of  sheep. 

THE  NUTRITIVE  RATIO. 

We  have  mentioned  the  nutritive  ratio.  This  term,  how- 
ever well  understood  by  scientific  people,  is  not  so  well  so 
by  others.  We  therefore  explain  the  meaning  of  the  term 
and  the  method  of  finding  it  from  the  known  composition 
of  the  various  foods  as  given  in  the  table  on  a  succeeding 
page. 

A  great  many,  thousands  in  fact,  of  careful  experiments 
have  been  made  especially  by  the  German  chemists  at  the 
scientific  stations,  of  the  common  food  substances.  These 
bear  a  comparative  value  as  the  composition  of  each  varies. 
But  as  any  feeder  may  desire  to  select  any  one  or  more 
of  the  various  foods  for  his  use,  moved  thereto  by  various 
good  reasons,  as  the  cheapness  or  dearness,  or  the  supply  of 
different  kinds,  we  have  the  means  of  easily  determining 
what  quantity  of  this  or  that  may  be  equivalent  to  others, 
We  therefore  refer  to  the  table  of  analyses  of  composition 
of  the  various  kinds  of  foods,  and  the  amount  of  their  diges- 
tible nutriments,  and  by  ascertaining  the  relative  character 
of  each,  we  may  easily  compound  a  suitable  ration  with 
fixed  nutritive  value,  of  any  of  them. 

For  example:  Let  us  take  good  meadow  hay,  and  find  its 
nutritive  ratio.  Turnin,g  to  the  table  of  compositions  we 
find  that  this  kind  of  hay  is  made  up  of  these  nutrients: 


NUTRITIVE  RATIO.  137 


ACTUAL.  DIGESTIBLE. 

Water 14.3  per  cent.        —  per  cent. 

Ash 4 6.2 


Protein : 9.7 

Fiber 26.3 

Starch,  etc 41.0 


Fat  2.5 

100.0 

The  digestible  matter  of  these  is  stated  in  the  second  col- 
umn. Finding  the  quantity  o,f  digestible  matter  in  each,  we 
find  this  to  be: 

ProteiT) H.4  per  cent. 

Fiber 15.     "      " 

Starch,  etc 25.8    " 

Fat 1.2   "      " 

We  then  take  these  digestible  equivalents— for  it  is  only 
the  digestible  parts  of  the  food  that  count  in  the  feeding  of 
an  animal  as  will  be  easily  understood— and  calculate  the 
quantities  of  each. 

We  then  make  this  comparison: 

Digestible  protein 5.4 

Digestible  fiber 15. 

Digestible  starch,  etc 25.8 

Digestible  fat 3.0 

438 

The  fat  is  seen  to  be  increased  to  3.  This  is  because  a 
pound  of  fat,  being  wholly  digestible,  and  having  two  and  a 
half  times  as  much  nutritive  effect  as  starch  and  other  carbo- 
hydrates, it  is  worth  so  much  more,  as  food,  as  starch  is. 
Then  we  find  that  \Ve  have  5.4  parts  of  protein  to  43.8  of  the 
whole  of  the  carbo-hydrates  (the  fiber  and  starch),  and  the 
increased  fat.  All  these  are  made  up  of  carbon  and  water, 
hence  we  call  them  all  carbo-hydrates,  but  keep  the  fats 
distinct.  We  then  find  the  proportions  between  these  as  5.4 
is  to  43.8— so  is  1  to  8.1. 

Then  8.4  is  the  nutritive  ratio  between  the  carbo-hy- 
drates and  the  protein,  or  one  pound  of  the  former  exists  in 
the  hay  to  8.4  pounds  of  the  others. 

This  is  the  best  natural  nutritive  ratio,  or  proportion,  for 
the  support  of  any  animal  for  ordinary  growth.  For  fatten- 
ing we  increase  or  widen  the  ratio  by  adding  to  the  carbo- 
hydrates or  the  fats. 

Profit  in  sheep  farming  calls  for  the  most  generous  feed- 
ing, carefully  carried  through  with  the  utmost  regularity  as 


138  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

to  the  quantity  of  food  and  the  time  of  feeding.  A  sheep  is  a 
restless  animal,  and  it  worries  if  the  time  of  feeding  is  de- 
layed only  a  short  time.  Then  tine  shepherd,  thoughtless  of  this 
habit  of  his  flock,  hears  the  impatient  bleating,  all  pf  which 
means  to  him  the  loss  of  so  much  food  on  account  of  the  loss 
by  nervous  excitement  and  worry  of  the  flock.  As  a  rule  we 
are  not  sufficiently  careful  in  this  regard,  and  thus  we  do 
not  meet  with  so  much  success  in  this  part  of  our  farming 
or  herding  as  the  English  shepherds  do.  There  the  sheep  is 
considered  the  "rent-payer,"  that  is,  it  pays  the  whole  cost 
of  the  use  or  interest  on  the  value  of  the  land.  Here  it 
rarely  amounts  to  half  as  much  as  this,  for  our  lands  are 
much  cheaper  than  those  of  England. 

As  has  been  said,  the  sheep — under  the  best  methods  of 
management— pays  three  profits:  the  fleece,  the  lamb  and 
the  carcass.  But  on  farms  there  is  another  source  of  income. 
This  we  may  find  in  returning  to  the  figures  given  above, 
where  we  find  a  large  part  of  food  not  accounted  for  as 
digestible  nutriment.  What  becomes  of  this?  It  goes  to 
make  manure  which  fertilizes  the  land,  increasing  the  crops, 
thus  enabling  the  farmer  to  keep  more  sheep,  and  thus  this 
goes  on  increasing  constantly.  As  more  manure  more  crops, 
more  crops  more  sheep,  and  still  more  manure  more  crops, 
more  sheep,  and  constantly  nure  profit,  through  the  enrich- 
ment of  the  land. 

A  well  fed  flock  is  the  most  profitable  property  a  farmer 
can  own.  It  is  said  the  dairy  is  this.  But  the  sheep  take 
the  palm  from  the  cows  every  time.  A  cow,  if  only  led  for 
milk,  takes  more  fertility  from  the  land  in  a  year  than  ten 
sheep,  yet  it  is  figured  that  seven  sheep  may  be  kept  on  one 
acre  in  the  best  manner.  Sheep  are  fed  with  profit  in  Eng- 
land, the  whole  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  may  be  in- 
cluded in  this  name,  a*nd  equally  in  France  and  Germany, 
on  land  worth,  and  paying  interest  or  rent  on,  a  value  of  five 
hundred  dollars  an  acre;  and  the  reason  for  it  is  the  skillful 
methods  of  feeding,  of  which  the  growth  of  root  crops  is  the 
chief  staple  element.  This  we  will  say,  with  the  strongest 
emphasis,  is  the  key  to  complete  successful  keeping  of  sheep 
on  farms. 

Sir  J.  B.  Lawes— the  first  agricultural  experimenter  in 
the  world— in  his  most  complete  reports  of  his  work  during 


140  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

more  than  fifty  years,  proved  that  sheep  may  be  fed  with  a 
profit  of  fifty  per  cent  more  than  cattle.  For  the  food  con- 
sumed the  sheep  laid  up  an  increase  of  live  weight  of  twelve 
per  cent,  while  cattle  increased  only  eight  per  cent.  So  that 
eight  and  a  half  pounds  of  food  increased  the  weight  of 
sheep  as  much  as  twelve  and  a  half  pounds  of  the  same 
food  increased  the  weight  of  cattle.  The  wool  is  thrown 
in  as  a  bonus  to  the  feeder  of  sheep,  and  this  we  may  believe 
will  pay  the  cost  of  the  feeding.  So  that  the  farmer  who 
feeds  a  flock  of  sheep  over  a  Winter  will  make  fifty  per  cent 
more  weight  of  the  same  food  as  compared  with  cattle,  and 
have  the  fleece  besides.  The  lamb  will  offset  the  calf  if  it 
does  not  largely  exceed  the  profit  in  it,  for  there  may  be 
seven  lambs  reared  for  one  calf,  and  this  without  the  labor 
of  attending  to  the  calves.  The  lambs  feed  themselves.  Be- 
sides the  profit  from  the  lambs  comes  in  within  a  few 
months,  while  the  calf  takes  more  time  to  mature. 

FEEDING  FOR  LAMBS. 

One  of  the  most  profitable  methods  of  feeding  a  flock 
is  to  purchase  a  bunch  of  ewes  in  the  late  Summer,  or  earlier 
if  possible.  By  good  feeding,  while  on  the  aftermath  of  a 
clover  field,  with  a  run  on  a  grain  stubble,  until  the  Winter 
sets  in,  and  then  feeding  on  clover  hay  and  a  small  allow- 
ance of  oats,  and  a  still  smaller  feed  of  corn,  with  a  few 
chopped  roots,  and  a  change  of  the  grain  to  bran  occasion- 
ally, making  use  of  a  cheap,  simple  feeding  shed,  in  a  dry 
yard,  a  flock  of  sheep  bred  to  a  pure  Cotswold  rani  has  made 
a  profit  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  per  cent  on  the  money  in- 
vested for  something  less  than  a  year.  It  was  a  small  ex- 
periment made  by  the  author  to  test  this  matter  of  profit  to 
the  farmer  made  in  this  easy  way.  The  value  of  the  large 
quantity  of  manure  left  in  the  shed  when  the  sheep  went  on 
to  a  second  year  clover  field,  in  the  Spring,  is  not  counted 
in  these  figures,  but  it  was  well  worth  more  than  a  dollar 
a  head  for  the  ewes  kept.  The  sheep  were  common  natives, 
and  had  they  been  a  better  lot  the  profit  might  have 
been  larger.  But  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  procure  a  lot  of 
picked  native  sheep  from  the  passing  droves,  when  it  would 
not  be  so  easy  to  procure  better  bred  ewes.  The  better  bred 
lambs,  however,  made  the  most  of  the  profit,  and  proved  the 


FEEDING  FOR  LAMBS.  141 

great  advantage  of  crossing  such  a  rani  on  a  flock  of  the 
common  natives. 

The  Winter  feeding  of  a  small  flock  may  thus  be  made 
the  most  profitable  part  of  the  farmer's  work.  There  is  a 
wide  scope  for  it  anywhere,  and  if  the  lambs  thus  reared  are 
kept  for  a  permanent  flock,  an  equal  profit  might  be  made 
every  year.  Some  of  the  most  successful  farmers  make  a 
practice  of  feeding  sheep  in  this  way  to  consume  the  rough- 
ness of  their  crops,  the  straw,  the  corn  fodder,  or  these  made 
into  ensilage,  with  a  moderate  allowance  of  grain.  It  has 
been  found  a  good  practice  to  cut  the  green  corn  stalks  taken 
from  the  usual  husking  and  mixing  them  in  a  silo  with  the 
straw.  The  fermentation  the  mass  undergoes  makes  a  large 
quantity  of  the  otherwise  indigestible  food  available,  and  ex- 
perience has  shown  that  in  this  way  the  cost  of  the  mixed 
feed  need  not  be  over  one  dollar  a  ton,  while  it  is  worth 
for  feeding  at  least  ten  dollars.  Indeed  the  silo  has  solved 
for  the  farmer  the  question  of  profitable  feeding  of  sheep; 
for  if  one  acre  of  silage  will  feed  one  cow  one  Winter,  it  will 
feed  seven  sheep,  and  this  is  but  one  half  as  much  as  has 
been  shown  to  be  easily  possible  for  a  dairyman  to  do  with 
his  cows.  Ihis  fact  may  interest  thousands  of  farmers  who 
are  asking  if  the  feeding  of  sheep  on  a  farm  can  be  made 
profitable.  There  is  not  a  locality  in  the  whole  Union,  in- 
eluding  our  neighboring  enterprising  Canadians,  in  which 
this  exceedingly  profitable  business  may  not  be  carried  on 
with  entire  success.  It  need  only  be  done  with  caution, 
with  those  inexperienced,  to  begin  with  a  small  flock  and 
feel  their  way  to  larger  enterprise  in  good  time. 

This  enterprise  is  well  adapted  to  the  restoration  of  worn 
down  lands,  on  the  thousands  of  farms  in  the  Eastern  part 
of  the  Union.  Any  of  these  farms  may  be  made  by  moderate 
fertilizating,  to  produce  fodder  corn,  oats,  rye,  and  turnips, 
with  many  of  several  easily  grown  green  feeding  crops, 
such  as  oats  and  peas,  rape  or  millet.  The  feeding  of  those 
of  these  crops  best  adapted  to  it  by  the  sheep  on  the  ground 
will  afford  an  adequate  manuring  to  yield  a  good  crop  of 
corn,  and  double  the  yield  of  the  first  crops  grown  the  first 
year.  This  is  a  far  easier  enterprise,  and  less  laborious  and 
freer  from  risks  than  the  dairy.  It  costs  less  money  to  start, 
and  brings  its  rewards  in  less  time. 


142 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


TABLE  OF  NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  FOODS. 

100TH  AIR  DRY  MATTER.— GRASSES  GREEN. 


Kinds  of  Fodder. 

UJ 

£ 

Protein. 

Carbo-Hydrates, 
Starch,  Sugar,  etc. 

1 

.  £ 

^Nutritive  Ratio. 

Common  Vetch  

4.53 
7  03 

25.14 
24-50 

35.26 
46  06 

13  06 
11  15 

1-1.24 
1       20 

Clover  full  bloom  

4  38 

17  50 

47  42 

14  55 

1  —  30 

Alfalfa    young 

3  88 

27  30 

38  80 

12  00 

1      16 

Alfalfa  in  bloom  

2  63 

15  75 

47  94 

9Q  78 

1  —  3  2 

Beans,  ripe  

1.93 

25.09 

59  15 

3  43 

Bean  pods  and  stalks  dry  
Peas  early  green 

1.36 

55 

3.50 
4  37 

58.74 
14  48 

21.60 
1  66 



Peas,  dry  

2  52 

19  91 

65  98 

7  98 

Cow  peas 

4  63 

17  19 

49  11 

California  broom  grass  

2  30 

8  50 

42  67 

22  91 

—  5  3 

Bermuda  grass  . 

1  83 

9  16 

46  06 

20  16 

—  52 

Southern  crab  grass  

2  42 

8  38 

36  59 

27  50 

—  4  7 

Texan  Millet  

2  12 

4  70 

47  07 

23  16 

—10  5 

2  43 

5  37 

56  50 

17  87 

11  0 

Red  top  

1.97 
3  43 

9.09 
7  50 

48.53 
48  10 

21.01 

22  42 

—  5  6 
6  9 

Buffalo  grass  

2  67 

7  35 

49  58 

19  41 

—  71 

2  59 

6  90 

49  87 

21  98 

—  7  6 

Wild  oat  grass       

3  02 

6  84 

46  80 

25  98 

—  —  7  3 

Kentucky  blue  grass  

2  45 

9.89 

44.96 

23.94 

—  4  8 

Orchard  grass,  ripe  

2  99 

7  21 

46  92 

21  35 

—  70 

Red  top,  young  

3.50 

12.25 

50.03 

19.47 

—  4.4 

Red  top,  early  bloom  ...   . 

3  38 

11  88 

50  84 

20  20 

—  4  6 

Timothy,  voung  

4.20 

11.55 

50.05 

18.35 

—  4.7 

Timothy,  full  bloom.  
Orchard  grass  youn^ 

3.35 
3  88 

9.28 
15  05 

55.22 
47  94 

20.55 
17  68 

—  6.3 
—  3  4 

Orchard  grass,  full  bloom  

3.03 

8.92 

50  32 

23  78 

1—  6.0 

Green  leaves  of  trees  in  wood^ 

4  50 

15  60 

45  61 

39  00 

Dwarf  Essex  Rape  

3.80 

12.86 

42.47 

18.96 

Mixed  meadow  hay  

2  50 

9  4 

41  00 

26  00 

—  80 

Red  Clover 

2  20 

12  3 

38  20 

26  00 

—  59 

Alfalfa  

2  56 

16  00 

31  6 

26  00 

—  2  8 

Vetch 

2  35 

19  80 

28  5 

23  40 

—  23 

Peas  and  oats  in  bloom  

3  6 

14  3 

34  2 

25  2 

—  40 

Timothy 

3  0 

9  7 

45  8 

22  7 

8  1 

Wheat  straw  

1  20 

4  6 

36  9 

40  0 

1  —  45  8 

Barley  straw 

1  40 

3  3 

32  5 

43  0 

1    40  0 

Oat  straw  
Corn  stalks  

2.00 
1.00 

4.0 
3.0 

36.2 
36.7 

39.5 
40.0 

1—29.9 
1—34.4 

Wheat  

1  4 

4  3 

34  6 

36  0 

1  —  24  0 

Oats  . 

1  5 

4  o 

36  2 

34  0 

1    23  0 

Vetch  Hulls  

2  0 

8  5 

33  5 

33  0 

1  —  8  9 

Bean  Hulls  

2.0 

10.5 

34  0 

33.0 

1—  7.4 

NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  FOOD. 


143 


TABLE  OF  NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  FOODS.— (Continued.) 


Roots. 

Water. 

d 

1 

Protein. 

03 

il 

11 

°w 

1 

s 

Nutritive 
Ratio. 

Mangels  

88  0 

0  1 

1  i 

9  i 

0  9 

1-93 

Sugar  beets  

81  5 

0  1 

1.0 

15  4 

1  3 

1—17  0 

Ruta-bagas     

87  0 

0  1 

1  3 

9  5 

1  0 

1-83 

Turnips 

92  0 

0  1 

1  1 

5  3 

0  8 

1      58 

Potatoes  
Sweet  potatoes  

75.0 
69.7 

0.2 
0.3 

2.1 
1.9 

20.7 
26.3 

1.1 
1.7 

1—10.6 
1—31.9 

Grains,  Dry  Matter. 

t/i 
1 

jj 

£ 

Carbo- 
Hydrates. 

1 

£ 

Nutritive 
Ratio. 

Wheat 

1  5 

13  0 

66  4 

3  0 

1      58 

Rye             

2  0 

11  0 

67  4 

3  5 

1—70 

2  5 

10  0 

63  9 

7  1 

1      79 

Oats  

6  0 

12  0 

55  7 

9  3 

1—  6  1 

Corn 

5  5 

10  5 

57  i 

5  5 

1      86 

Buckwheat  

1  5 

9  o 

58  7 

15  0 

1—74 

Peas 

2  0 

22  4 

52  5 

6  4 

1      29 

Beans    

1  6 

25  5 

45  9 

9  4 

1—23 

1  3 

21  6 

49  3 

4  7 

1    27 

lyinseed     

37  0 

20*5 

19  6 

7~2 

Acorns,  ripe  

2.8 

3.5 

46  6 

7.8 

1—17 

Sunflower  seeds  . 

23  6 

13  0 

23  9 

28  5 

1—72 

Chestnuts,  fresh  

1.6 

4.3 

41.3 

2.0 

1-11.50 

Apples  and  pears 

0  4 

11  8 

4  3 

1—43  0 

Pumpkins  

0.6 

0.6 

6.5 

2.7 

1—18.4 

Squashes  

0.2 

0.9 

9.1 

1.0 

1—15.8 

PRODUCTS    PURCHASABLE. 


3  5 

12  9 

59  1 

8  1 

-     5  6 

Pea  bran  
Pea  hulls        

1.5 

2  5 

13  1 
8  0 

37.8 
43  7 

31.1 

30  5 

—  5.3 
-  9  2 

Sugar  beet  pulp  

0.2 

1.8 

18.3 

6  3 

—13  9 

Potato  starch  pulp  

0  1 

0  8 

11  7 

2  0 

—17  4 

Corn  starch  meal 

2  0 

3  6 

18  8 

3  4 

1      74 

Palm  nut  cake  
Oatmeal  refuse 

14.8 
2  3 

13.5 
7  1 

41.0 

57  9 

18.8 
19  3 

1—  7.0 
1-     97 

Linseed  oil  meal  

2.3 

33.2 

38.7 

8.8 

1—  1.4 

The  preceding  table  is  worthy  of  special  notice  and  study. 
A  large  number  of  these  substances  may  often  be  purchased 
very  cheaply,  and  some  are  especially  valuable  for  fattening 
sheep  or  lambs.  Such  are,  of  the  grains,  oats,  in  the  first 
place,  which  it  will  be  seen  is  worth  more  than  corn,  while 
this  grain  is  worth  more  for  the  flesh  making  elements, 
the  protein  than  the  corn.  The  various  kinds  of  pulse,  peas, 
etc.,  are  seen  to  be  especially  rich  in  flesh-making  elements, 
and  thus  are  valuable  for  feeding  to  lambs  when  growing 


144  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

fast,  and  as  well  for  fattening  sheep,  as  the  protein  tends 
to  make  a  more  useful  meat  than  fat,  and  the  tendency  now 
is  to  favor  meat  rather  than  a  load  of  fat  on  the  carcass. 
Turnips  and  ruta-bagas,  among  the  roots,  are  seen  to  be 
well  balanced  food,  and  being  completely  digestible  without 
waste,  are  not  only  of  superior  value  for  this  in  itself,  but  as 
well  to  aid  in  the  digestion  of  other  and  less  digestible  food, 
of  which  it  has  been  already  mentioned  that  less  than  half 
is  digestible,  in  some  of  them. 

It  is  also  worthy  of  notice  that  the  products  of  forest 
land  are  especialty  valuable  for  the  leaves,  as  well  as  for 
the  young  twigs,  which  are  greedily  eaten  by  sheep  and 
form  naturally  the  bulk  of  the  food  in  wooded  localities. 
The  author's  experience  goes  to  show  that  the  fine  brush  of 
trees,  especially  of  the  small  growth,  may  be  cut  and 
stacked  with  great  advantage  for  the  Winter  browsing  of  a 
flock,  which  will  feed  at  a  stack  of  this  stuff  in  preference 
to  the  hay,  or  even  sheaf  oats.  This  fact  is  of  value  to 
Southern  shepherds  where  so  much  land  is  left  to  grow  up 
with  brush,  when  throvnu  out  as  old  fields  for  a  resting 
spell,  to  slowly  recover  its  lost  fertility.  The  very  common 
sassafras  is  especially  palatable  to  sheep,  which  will  browse 
down  quite  large  shrubs  of  it  to  the  roots.  The  tonic,  as  well 
as  nutritive  character  of  the  sassafras,  is  excellent,  and 
tends  to  keep  the  sheep  in  the  best  of  health.  Sheep  have 
been  kept  the  whole  Winter  in  the  South  on  this  kind  of 
feeding,  leaving  hay  for  the  small  growth  of  the  old  fields 
and  spending  the  most  of  the  time  in  the  thicker  woods 
rather  than  pasture  on  the  open  ground,  although  the  grass 
may  be  quite  abundant.  The  sweet  potato,  too,  is  eagerly 
eaten  by  sheep,  who  will  eat  off  the  vines  when  they  are 
fully  grown,  thus  saving  a  large  quantity  of  excellent  pas- 
ture in  a  season  when  it  comes  in  very  acceptably.  South- 
ern shepherds,  too,  may  follow  the  common  method  in 
England,  and  the  European  countries,  where  root  crops,  cab- 
bages, rape  and  the  so-called  collards— a  kind  of  cabbage 
which  grows  up  to  a  tall  plant — are  growrn  as  the  usual  Win- 
ter feeding  MI  the  open  fields.  The  really  drier  climate  of 
the  Southern  Winter,  as  compared  with  that  of  Europe,  too, 
adds  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  Southern  shepherds  who 
by  growing  these  crops  will  be  able  to  furnish  their  flocks 


RULES  FOR   WINTER  FEEDING.  145 

with  the  cheapest  and  most  healthful  out-door  feeding,  and 
at  the  same  time  improve  their  lambs  without  cost  and  even 
at  a  profit. 

The  cow-pea  is  one  of  the  best  of  these  green  pasture 
plants  for  the  South  and  middle  States,  and  if  gathered 
the  vines  make  excellent  hay.  It  may  be  sown  in  the 
corn  or  cotton,  and  pastured  as  long  as  it  remains  green. 
The  dry  grain  of  it  is  seen  to  be  equally  valuable  as  the  pea 
or  the  bean.  The  common  white  bean  is  another  neglected 
crop,  for  a  farm  flock,  as  may  be  suggested  by  a  reference 
to  the  nutritive  value  of  the  pulse,  as  well  as  all  its  products. 
When  made  into  hay  with  the  grain  in  it,  all  the  pulse  tribe 
furnish  the  richest  kind  of  feed  for  Winter  use,  both  for  a 
store  flock,  as  well  as  for  fattening. 

Pumpkins  and  squashes  are  also  not  only  nutritious 
food,  but  healthful,  and  if  chopped  may  be  fed  with  much* 
advantage.  The  common  impression  to  the  effect  that  these 
gourds  are  undesirable  on  account  of  their  undue  action  on 
the  kidneys,  has  no  foundation  in  fact,  and  the  seeds  are 
especially  useful  as  a  vermifuge. 

RULES  FOR  WINTER   FEEDING. 

It  is  not  altogether  the  kind  of  food  given  to  a  flock  but 
quite  as  much  how  it  is  given,  that  counts  to  the  full  benefit 
of  the  shepherd.  The  sheep  is  a  peculiar  animal,  not 
naturally  of  a  tender  character,  but  due  of  the  hardiest 
races.  Under  domestication  there  is  no  other  animal  that 
calls  for  the  most  careful  management  of  the  owner  than 
this.  It  is  apt  to  fret,  and  soon  fall  into  a  poor  condition, 
unless  fed  at  regular  intervals,  aaid  these  so  distributed  as 
to  secure  the  full  digestion  of  the  food.  Once  the  sheep 
are  left  unattended  to,  they  become  dissatisfied,  and  food  is 
wanted  to  make  up  for  the  loss  occasioned  by  the  nervous 
excitement  thus  produced.  The  experiment  has  been  tried 
with  two  flocks,  one*  fed  at  six  in  the  morning  with  strict 
regularity,  every  day,  at  intervals  of  four  hours,  making 
the  last  feed  at  six  in  the  evening,  when  the  racks  are  filled 
for  the  night.  At  the  third  feeding  the  grain  food  is  given, 
the  other  three  feeds  being  of  coarse  fodder,  for  the  first, 
and  fourth,  and  hay  for  the  second.  This  flock  made  on  the 
whole  fourteen  pounds  of  live  weight  for  the  average  all 


146  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

through,  over  a  flock  fed  three  feeds  without  any  attention 
to  regularity. 

At  the  first  feeding  the  racks  are  cleaned  out,  and  the 
waste  scattered  over  the  floor.  The  fodder  given  may  be, 
as  in  the  case  under  notice,  of  fodder  corn,  sown  in  drills 
three  feet  apart  and  the  seed  six  inches  apart  in  the  drill, 
the  variety  sown  being  the  Narragansett  sweet  corn.  A 
large  majority  of  the  stalks  had  ears  on  them,  and  the  fod- 
der cured  in  small  stacks  or  shocks  was  bright  and  green. 
There  was  no  waste  in  the  feeding  of  this,  and  the  sheep 
required  no  grain  during  the  feeding  of  this  fodder. 

At  the  second  feeding,  bright  oat  straw,  at  times  sheaf 
oats,  was  given  in  the  racks,  which  were  well  cleaned  up  by 
the  sheep.  The  third  feeding  as  long  as  the  corn  fodder 
lasted,  was  given  of  this,  and  the  racks  were  filled  up  with 
clover  hay  for  the  night.  After  the  appetite  of  the  sheep 
had  become  well  measured  by  experience,  there  was  prac- 
tically no  waste,  and  this  should  be  made  an  important  part 
of  the  management,  there  being  much  cheaper  litter  than 
good  clover  hay. 

But  since  the  silo  has  been  in  use,  the  feeding  of  silage 
has  been  found  quite  as  safe  and  profitable  for  sheep  as  for 
cows.  Indeed  its  use  has  been  so  remarkably  successful 
that  doubtless  for  the  farm  sheep,  as  well  as  for  the  flocks 
on  the  ranges,  this  provision  will  be  the  common  practice. 
The  old,  but  wofully  mistaken  impression  of  the  tenderfoot 
shepherd,  that  sheep  would  feed  themselves  on  the  open 
range,  during  the  Winters,  has  brought  many  a  flock  and 
its  owners  to  sudden  grief,  and  this  has  become  so  generally 
known  that  £bis  sometime  practice,  not  of  supporting,  but 
really  of  destroying  a  flock,  is  now  a  thing  of  the  past,  no 
more  to  be  thought  of.  The  ranch  sheep  must  be  fed  as  the 
farm  flock  is,  for  there  is  no  pro-fit  in  stopping  the  growth 
of  a  sheep  as  well  as  its  fleece,  for  some  months,  and  it  must 
be  the  custom  to  provide  the  Winter  feeding  precisely  the 
same  as  for  the  farm  flock.  The  rustler  among  sheep  is  not 
a  profitable  animal,  and  only  the  well  kept  flock  will  pay  a 
profit  to  its  master.  Consequently  there  will  be  fenced  fields, 
on  which  such  crops  as  will  suit  each  location  and  the 
climate  of  it,  must  be  grown  for  the  Winter  feeding,  and  the 
silo  must  be  an  adjunct  to  this  system. 


FEEDING  CROPS  FOR  SHEEP. 
FEEDING  CROPS  FOR  SHEEP. 


147 


Necessarily  the  crops  grown  by  the  shepherd  must  be 
suited  to  the  special  climate  of  each  locality.  There  are  loca- 
tions in  the  South  and  Southwest,  in  which  it  may  be  possible 
for  the  flocks  to  subsist  on  the  natural  growth,  but  the  pre- 
diction may  be  easily  hazarded  that  the  culture  of  feeding 
crops  will  be  the  rule  in  spite  of  the  existence  of  natural 
herbage,  for  the  Winter  feed  of  the  flocks,  not  only  on  the 


ALFALFA  SEEDLING. 

farms  but  on  the  ranges.  Indeed,  where  land  is  cheap  or 
costs  nothing,  being  yet  public  property,  it  will  still  be  the 
most  profitable  method  to  feed  flocks,  quite  half  the  year, 
on  grown  crops.  Fortunately  there  is  so  extensive  a  list  of 
crops  that  will  succeed  well,  some  in  one  locality  and  some 
in  others,  that  there  will  be  no  difficulty,  and  very  littl- 
cost,  in  providing  the  required  feed.  For  one  of  the  mo=  i 


148  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

valuable  fodder  crops  for  sheep,  the  well  known  alfalfa 
may  be  grown  in  a  dry  climate,  where  clover — its  near  rela- 
tive—does not  succeed.  Under  good  culture  alfalfa  will 
yield  several  cuttings  in  the  season.  In  Italy,  where  it  is 
known  as  lucern,  it  is  extensively  grown  for  feeding,  and  is 
cut  several  times  in  the  Summer,  making  a  growth"  of 
eighteen  inches  between  the  cuttings.  This  great  growth  is 
procured  by  irrigation,  and  the  same  practice  prevails  in 
Chili,  in  South  America,  where  it  is  called  alfalfa,  the  Span- 
-ish  name  of  it.  The  plant  has  been  introduced  into  Cali- 
fornia, where  it  thrives  exceedingly  on  the  tule  lands,  or  the 
flat  river  bottoms,  without  actual  irrigation,  and  as  it  is 
naturally  used  to  dry,  warm  climate,  it  is  one  of  the  best 
feeding  crops  for  sheep,  either  for  ordinary  pasture  or  for 
feeding  in  racks  or  in  plots,  separated  by  hurdles.  This 
plant  will  grow  where  clover  will  not,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  for  the  shepherd.  The  seed  is  sown  on  well 
plowed  land  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  pounds  to  the  acre,  pref- 
erably in  drills,  so  that  the  land  may  be  cultivated  itn  the 
early  growth  of  the  crop.  Oiuce  established  it  lasts  twelve 
or  more  years  in  the  ground. 

Winter  rye  is  a  useful  plant  for  feeding  sheep.  On  good 
land  it  may  be  made  to  furnish  pasture  all  the  Winter,  ex- 
cept of  course  when  it  is  covered  by  snow,  and  even  then 
the  sheep  will  reach  it  if  the  snow  is  not  too  deep,  by  paw- 
ing off  the  snow.  For  this  purpose  the  seed  should  be 
sown  thickly,  at  least  three  or  four  bushels  to  the  acre, 
and  as  early  as  possible  to  get  a  good  seeding.  It  will 
afford  pasture  if  desired  only  for  this  purpose,  until  the 
corn  is  planted,  when  the  refuse  turned  under  makes  an  ex- 
cellent fertilizer.  Where  the  snow  falls  lightly,  and  stays 
but  a  short  time,  this  crop  will  be  found  one  of  the  best 
for  this  use,  and  cheaply  grown.  It  is  said  that  this  crop 
will  continue  to  grow  and  make  good  pasture  for  two  or 
three  years,  .as  it  will  not  mature  unless  it  forms  seed 
heads.  But  this  is  stated,  not  on  personal  information,  but 
on  current  report.  It  is  a  common  practice  on  farms  to  pas- 
ture this  and  some  other  crops  by  penning  the  sheep  in 
hurdles,  or  any  kind  of  light  portable  fences.  Hurdles  are 
made  in  a  simple  manner  in  the  way  showrn  further  on,  of 
split  saplings  of  chestnut  or  other  woods,  and  the  pointed 


FEEDING  CROPS  FOR  SHEEP.  149 

ends  of  the  stakes  are  driven  into  the  ground  by  a  mallet, 
the  ends  of  the  hurdles  being  tied  together  by  wires  twisted 
around  the  stakes.  It  is  a  small  work  to  move  a  lot  of  these 
hurdles,  as  the  ground  is  eaten  off,  by  a  wagon,  and  setting 
them  up  the  desired  space  ahead.  Such  a  crop  as  rye,  for 
instance,  is  doubled  in  useful  value  by  the  use  of  this  kind 
of  fence.  It  has  been  stated  by  that  renowned  scientist, 
Liebig,  that  rye  so  fed  one  year  will  become  a  biennial  as 
mentioned  above  and  produce  a  crop  of  grain  the  next  sea- 
son, all  the  more  productive  by  the  well  known  manurial 
ajid  fertilizing  effects  of  pasturing  land  by  sheep.  Indeed, 
the  use  of  a  flock  for  the  improvement  of  land  by  this 
pasturing  is  one  of  the  most  effective  methods  of  scientific 
culture. 

The  vetch  or  tares  is  a  valuable  pasturing  crop.  It  is  a 
hardy  plant,  thriving  as  far  North  as  Eastern  Canada,  and 
having  as  wide  a  range  as  clover. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  this  plant,  one  is  the  Win- 
ter vetch,  the  other  the  Spring  vetch.  This  is  a  plant  of  the 
pea  family,  and  is  quite  as  hardy  as  the  pea.  We  have  a 
large  variety  of  this  plant  growing  wild  and  in  the  South- 
ern mountain  regions,  where  it  is  frequently  found  in  the 
open  woods  growing  three  feet  high,  and  completely  cover- 
ing the  ground.  It  has  been  grown  as  far  North  as  the 
neighborhood  of  Montreal,  and  as  far  West  as  that  fertile 
tract  of  territory  between  Lake  Erie  and  Huron.  It  ranks 
as  a  fodder  plant  equally  with  red  clover,  but  yields  quite 
twice  as  much  feeding  as  this  plant.  It  thrives  best  on  a 
clay  soil,  and  the  soil  needs  to  be  thoroughly  well  worked, 
the  surface  for  four  or  five  inches  deep  being  made  as  fine 
as  possible  to  ensure  the  best  growth.  Doubtless  the 
Spring  variety  will  be  the  better  kind  for  the  Northern  part 
of  this  continent,  but  it  may  be  sown  with  safety  South  of 
Virginia.  It  may  be  sown  with  Winter  or  Spring  rye  by 
which  the  vines  are  upheld,  and  thus  make  a  more  econom- 
ical feeding  crop  than  when  sown  alone,  with  less  waste 
by  trampling  of  it  by  the  sheep.  But  where  the  lambs  are 
folded  on  it  within  hurdles,  there  is  little  waste  in  this  way. 
This  crop  is  exceedingly  valuable  on  farms  having  a  some- 
what worn  soil,  the  nitrogenous  character  of  the  plant  tend- 
ing to  enrich  it  as  riinch  as  a  large  quantity  of  manure  would 


150  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

do,  the  droppings  of  the  sheep  adding  considerably  to 
this  enrichment  oi'  the  soil.  When  this  crop  is  fed  to  lambs, 
fattening  for  sale,  it  is  desirable  to  feed  a  small  ration  of 
corn  to  balance  the  nutritive  elements  of  it,  on  account  of 
the  large  amount  of  protein  in  it.  The  amount  of  seed  is 
two  bushels  per  acre,  and. the  best  method  of  sowing  is  by 
drills  twelve  inches  apart. 

Peas  and  oats  sown  together,  is  another  excellent  forage 
crop  for  feeding  on  the  laud,  within  hurdles,  and  it  has 
also  an  excellent  result  in  the  soil,  improving  it  greatly, 
and  putting  it  in  fine  condition  for  wheat  following  it  in  the 
Fall.  The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  is  two  bushels  of 
oats  and  one  and  a  half  of  peas.  Seeding  by  the  drill  is 
the  best  method,  but  if  sown  broadcast,  which  may  be  done, 
the  peas  should  be  sown  first,  and  covered  by  the  plow  four 
inches  deep,  and  the  oats  then  sown  and  lightly  harrowed  in. 
This  crop  is  one  of  the  best  for  all  purposes,  for  green  fod- 
der, as  well  as  for  ripening,  when  it  is  cut  and  fed  with  the 
grain,  or  may  be  thrashed  and  the  straw  fed,  while  the 
grain  is  fed  separately.  This  feeding  is  precisely  what  is 
needed  for  the  full  feeding  of  store  ewes  in  lamb,  as  well  as 
for  fattening  with  the  addition  of  four  ounces  of  linseed-oil 
meal  per  day  to  each  sheep. 

Rape  has  become  exceedingly  popular  with  the  most  ad- 
vanced sheep  farmers  of  late.  During  the  past  three  or 
four  years  it  has  been  made  the  subject  of  many  experi- 
ments at  the  various  stations  where  it  has  been  mostly  fed 
to  feeding  lambs  in  preparation  for  the  market.  The  Min- 
nesota Station  has  given  the  most  thorough  attention  to  this 
subject,  having  fed  a  large  number  of  lambs  for  market  on 
this  crop.  The  Spring  variety  has  been  used,  the  Winter 
kind  being  better  adapted  to  a  less  rigorous  Winter  climate. 
This  variety  may  be  made  especially  useful  in  the  South, 
where  it  will  >vithstand  the  Winter  and  furnish  early  feed- 
ing, so  that  the  land  may  be  plowed  for  cotton  or  corn,  as 
a  following  crop.  Like  all  this  class  of  plants,  it  needs  a 
fertile  soil,  and  the  best  kind  of  culture.  Three  to  five 
pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  used,  being  preferably  drilled 
in  rows  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart  as  the  land  may  be 
less  or  more  fertile,  the  wider  space  being  the  best  for  tho 
richer  soil  on  account  of  the  heavier  growth.  Being  a  deep- 


FEEDING  CROPS  FOR  SHEEP.  151 

rooted  plaiiit  it  easily  recovers  after  having  been  fed  down, 
and  the  improvement  of  the  laud  for  a  succeeding  crop  is 
well  worth  all  the  cost  of  it.  . 

On  the  most  fertile  soils  thirty  inches  between  the  rows 
has  been  found  the  most  desirable,  the  plants  meeting  in 
the  rows  and  completely  covering  the  ground.  It  requires 
the  whole  ground  to  itself,  the  dense  growth  quite  prevent- 
ing grass  seed  from  growing.  Indeed,  on  the  farm  where 
sheep  are  kept  for  the  improvement  of  the  land  it  is  grown 
with  this  second  purpose,  as  well  as  for  the  feeding  of  the 
stock.  There  is  no  other  crop  which  goes  so  far  in  this 
way  to  verify  the  common  adage  about  the  golden  foot  of 
the  sheep,  for  it  is  most  profitable  in  both  ways.  It  shapes 
the  land  so  densely  by  its  thick  and  rapid  growth  that 
weeds  have  no  chance  to  survive,  and  making  a  weak  growth 
are  smothered  in  their  infancy,  as  it  were,  and  are 
completely  exterminated.  The  culture  of  the  laud  as  well, 
is  an  excellent  preparation  for  the  succeeding  crop,  and  thus 
the  keeper  of  sheep,  if  he  will,  as  the  saying  goes,  kiW  two 
birds  with  one  stone. 

It  is  rapid  in  its  growth.  At  two  months  after  sowing  it 
is  ready  for  feeding  down  or  for  cutting.  The  illustration 
here  given  shows  a  two  months  old  plant,  taken  from 
nature  by  the  truthful  camera.  Of  course  cutting  and  feed- 
ing in  racks  is  the  most  economical  method  of  feeding, 
although  somewhat  more  laborious  than  to  have  the  lambs 
or  sheep  gather  it  for  themselves,  and  while  the  waste 
of  the  crop  left  after  the  folding  on  the  land  goes  to  add 
a  valuable  manure  to  the  soil,  yet  by  feeding  it  off  the 
ground  we  get  all  the  waste  left  by  the  flock  in  doubtless  a 
better  and  more  easily  available  form,  and  the  return  from 
the  feeding  in  addition. 

The  illustration  is  taken  from  a  bulletin  of  the  Wis- 
consin Station,  where  an  experimental  crop  was  grown  for 
feeding  lambs  for  market.  The  crop  was  grown  on  land  in 
ordinarily  good  condition,  but  the  yield  made  goes  to  show 
the  importance  and  value  of  this  crop  to  the  shepherd  of  all 
branches  of  his  pursuit.  A  third  cutting  was  made,  which 
yielded  on  October  22nd,  2,218  Ibs.,  the  total  yield  from  this 
plot  amounting  to  7,669^  Ibs.,  on  one-tenth  of  an  acre,  thus 
making  over  thirty  tons  to  the  acre. 


152  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

An  easy  way  to  make  this  crop  most  useful  is  to  grow  it 
adjoining  a  grass  pasture  so  that  the  green  stuff  may  be  fed 
in  racks  on  the  grass,  and  by  moving  the  racks  a  little  every 
day  get  the  whole  of  the  pasture  evenly  manured  by  the 
droppings.  This  is  far  more  economical  than  folding  the 


TWO  MONTHS'  OLD  RAPE  PLANT. 

sheep  on  the  rape,  by  which  a  good  part  of  it  is  trampled 
down,  and  goes  to  waste  as  feed. 

In  this  experiment  the  rape  was  fed  to  hogs,  and  steers, 
as  well  as  to  the  lambs,  proving  it  to  be  equally  valuable 
for  this  use  as  well.  Unfortunately  it  is  not  adapted  for  the 
silo,  at  least  it  has  not  been  thought  to  be,  but  as  the  Ger- 
man and  French  beet  growers,  for  making  sugar,  ensilo  the 


FEEDING  CROPS  FOR  SHEEP  153 

leaves  of  the  crop,  it  is  scarcely  to  be  doubted  that  this 
might  as  easily  be  subjected  to  this  process  as  well.  As 
rape  is  a  close  relative  to  the  cabbage,  which  is  kept  in 
good  condition  through  the  Winter  In  pits,  as  will  be  de- 
scribed in  a  succeeding  page,  the  experiment  might  reason- 
ably turn  out  to  be  successful  and  this  crop  saved  for  Win- 
ter feeding.  As  rape  contains  nearly  one  pound  of  sulphur 
in  a  ton  of  it,  and  this  is  an  indispensable  ingredient  in 
wool,  in  which  there  is  more  than  three  and  a  half  pounds 
of  it  in  a  hundred  pounds  of  the  wool,  this  is  a  matter  of 
great  importance  in  regard  to  the  feeding  of  sheep  for  the 
lleece,  for  it  is  a  rule,  in  both  plant  and  animal  growth, 
that  every  element  in  the  composition  of  any  product  must 
be  fully  supplied  as  regards  all  of  them,  or  the  product  will 
be  deficient  in  quantity  or  in  quality  in  proportion.  The 
wool  grower  thus  must  see  that  every  element  of  the 
fleece  must  be  supplied  or  the  weight  or  quality  must  be 
reduced. 

This  plant  has  been  extensively  tried  and  has  been 
found  valuable  and  successful  everywhere  from  Minne- 
sota and  Wisconsin,  to  Missouri,  Kansas,  Arizona,  in  the 
Southern  States  (where  the  WMnter  variety  may  be  grown) 
and  all  through  the  middle  States  and  Canada.  Several 
communications  to  The  American  Sheep  Breeder,  from  cor- 
respondents have  been  published  in  that  Journal,  testifying 
to  the  value  of  this  crop.  From  these,  two  are  selected  as 
showing  the  value  of  this  crop.  One  from  Kansas,  says: 

"I  live  80  south  and  60  miles  east  of  Kansas  City.  On 
April  6  I  sowed  broadcast  10  pounds  of  Dwarf  Essex  rape 
seed  on  a  little  less  than  two  acres  of  groumd.  Notwith- 
standing we  had  a  very  cold,  backward  Spring,  it  came  up 
and  grew  rapidly.  On  May  20,  at  which  time  it  was  fully 
knee  high,  I  turfted  96  head  of  ewes  and  lambs  on  it,  only 
for  a  short  time  at  first,  but  afterwards  allowing  them  1o 
eat  their  fill  of  it  twice  a  day,  when  they  would  be  turned 
back  on  grass  pasture.  At  the  time  I  turned  the  sheep  on 
it  it  was  very  dry,  and  continued  so  for  two  weeks,  yet  it 
has  furnished  feed  for  the  96  head  for  three  weeks,  and  it  is 
not  all  eaten  up  yet.  I  find  that  it  should  be  sown  on  rich 
soil,  where  the  surface  is  free  from  clay,  for  good  results. 
One  corner  of  my  patch  was  a  clay  soil,  and  in  that  corner 


154  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP 

the  rape  did  practically  no  good,  but  where  the  soil  was 
rich  I  never  saw  anything  grow  faster  or  more  luxuriant.  It 
was  an  experiment  with  me,  as  I  had  never  seen  any  of  it 
before,  but  I  am  satisfied  that  rape  is  a  success  in  Southwest 
Missouri.  Shall  sow  a  twelve-acre  cornfield  with  it  next 
mouth  for  fall  pasture." 

The  other  is  from  Ohio,  and  runs  as  follows: 
"I  sowed  22  acres  of  corn  writh  rape  sown  ahead  of  the  cul- 
tivators at  last  cultivating,  July  15th,  and  made  an  immense 
lot  of  feed.  Turned  the  lambs  in  the  cornfield  the  latter 
part  of  August,  and  kept  them  there  most  of  the  time  until 
after  the  corn  was  husked.  I  next  turned  in  52  ewes  and  12 
head  of  cattle  until  January  10th.  Fed  little  else  excepting 
a  light  hay  feed  occasionally  when  the  weather  was  too 
rough  to  turn  stock  in  the  field.  A  year  ago  1  advocated,  in 
the  Sheep  Breeder,  one  pound  of  seed  to  the  acre  for  the 
corn  field.  My  second  year's  experience  justifies  my  early 
judgment.  The  thorough  cultivation  of  the  corn  kills  the 
weeds  and  leaves  the  rape  an  uninterrupted  growth  in  the 
protecting  shade  of  the  corn  where  it  makes  a  luxuriant 
and  bushy  growth,  much  better  indeed  than  when  sown  alone 
in  the  open  field.  I  think  this  the  cheapest  way  to  secure 
a  great  lot  of  very  valuable  feed  in  the  corn  belt  states.  The 
22  acres  gave  me  2,110  bushels  of  corn  in  the  ear  and  from 
150  to  200  tons  of  rape,  the  corn  not  in  the  least  affected 
by  its  companion  crop  of  rape." 

The  latter  is  interesting  as  showing  the  value  of  this 
crop  grown  in  the  way  described,  as  a  catch  crop,  as  it  is 
termed,  that  is,  one  pushed  in,  as  it  were,  between  two 
other  crops,  thus  filling  a  space  that  would  otherwise  be  un- 
occupied, and  not  only  providing,  as  is  told  in  this  plain 
story,  a  valuable  lot  of  feed,  but  of  occupying  land  that 
would  otherwise  have  beeii  idle  and  growing  useless  weeds. 
One  of  the  most  important  lessons  a  farmer  can  learn  and 
apply  to  his  practice,  is,  that  land  should  never  be  idle,  but 
always  growing  something  of  value  for  feeding  to  some  kind 
of  stock,  to  make  profit;  and  thus  exemplifying  the  adage 
taken  for  the  motto  of  thisi  work;  and  as  well  to  show 
how  easily  this  double  profit  may  be  made,  and  to  prove 
another  old  saying  (of  Cicero),  to  the  effect  that  "feeding 
animals  is  the  most  important  part  of  agriculture,"  and  we 


ROOTS.  155 

may  add  that  the  sheep  meets  this  sentiment  more  closely 
than  any  other  domestic  animal. 

ROOTS. 

Roots  of  various  kinds  are  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
the  succulent  feeding  crops  for  the  flock.  They  are  easily 
grown,  are  exceedingly  productive,  yielding  under  good  cul- 
ture from  twelve  to  thirty  tons  to  the  acre,  and  may  be  kept 
when  properly  stored  all  the  Winter;  and  some  of  them  as 
kite  the  next  year  as  July.  They  are  the  most  economical 
feed  for  sheep,  for  one  reason  especially,  which  is  that  the 
matter  of  them  is  perfectly  digestible  and  there  is  no  loss 
by  waste  in  this  respect.  They  may  be  cheaply  grown  under 
the  right  culture,  which  consists  of  a  fertile  soil  well 
manured,  during  the  Winter,  or  liberally  fertilized  in  the 
Spring.  Fall  plowing  is  desirable  as  the  second  plowing  in 
the  Spring  thoroughly  fines  the  soil,  and  mixes  the  decayed 
manure— applied  previously— with  the  soil.  It  is  desirable 
to  give  two  harrowings,  one  immediately  after  the  Spring 
plowing,  and  the  second  in  two  or  three  weeks  after, 
and  immediately  before  the  seed  is  sown,  so  as  to  check  the 
growth  of  weeds  as  much  as  possible,  and  force  a  rapid 
start  of  the  young  plants.  This  is  especially  desirable  on  ac- 
count of  the  tender  growth  of  them,  and  the  slight  root  hold 
taken  on  the  soil,  by  which  too  early  a  disturbance  of  the 
soil  is  injurious  to  the  crop,  if  dry  weather  should  occur. 

Six  pounds  of  seed  is  sufficient,  but  the  drill  should  be 
used  for  the  seeding.  For  extensive  culture,  double  drills 
are  used  by  which  two  rows  are  sown  at  once.  The  rows 
should  be  from  sixteen  inches  (for  beets)  to  twenty-four  or 
thirty  (for  turnips  or  mangels-)  apart,  giiving  ample  room 
for  the  use  of  the  cultivator  for  working  the  crops.  It  is  es- 
pecially necessary  that  the  seed  should  be  fresh,  especially 
as  to  the  beets  and  mangels,  the  capsules  in  which  the  seed 
is  enclosed  frequently  being  eaten  into  by  mice,  and  the 
small  seed  within  them  being  eaten  out.  This  is  frequently 
the  cause  of  thin  seeding,  by  .which  a  large  part  of  the  crop 
may  be  lost.  The  young  plants  are  thinned  out  to  twelve 
inches  in  the  rows  for  all  the  kinds  except  sugar  beets, 
which  need  but  ten  inches  of  space  between  the  plants. 
The  extra  plants  are  cut  out  with  a  sharp  hoe,  when  the 


156  THE    DOMESTCC    SHEEP. 

growth  is  sufficiently  strong  to  prevent  the  injury  of  others 
to  be  left,  by  the  disturbance  of  the  soil  about  them. 
For  a  small  crop  of  an  acre  or  two,  the  culture  may  be 
made  most  conveniently  by  means  of  hand  implements, 
seed  drill  and  cultivator,  and  the  thinning  of  the  plants 
may  be  done  most  easily  by  running  the  hand  cultivator 
across  the  rows  cutting  out  the  plants  in  the  ten  inch  spaces, 
leaving  four  inches  undisturbed  with  the  plants  thereon. 
This  saves  much  handwork  and  time  otherwise  spent.  The 
land  needs  to  be  clean  at  the  start,  made  so  most  conven- 
iently by  taking  a  crop  of  corn  previously,  which  sho.uld  be 
carefully  kept  free  from  weeds  as  a  preliminary  to  this 
following  crop. 

Before  the  plants  meet  in  the  rows,  the  leaves  covering 
the  intermediate  spaces,  culture  "may  cease,  and  the  crop 
will  take  care  of  itself.  When  ready  for  harvesting  the  crop 
is  gathered  in  the  following  manner:  With  a  sharp  hoe, 
ground  to  a  fine  cutting  edge,  one  goes  down  a  row  chopping 
off  the  tops  and  drawing  them  into  the  row  in  which  he  is 
walking.  He  returns  up  the  next  row  cutting  the  tops  in 
the  same  way,  thus  gathering  the  tops  of  two  rows  into  one. 

Another  goes  through  the  rows  following  the  first  one, 
and  with  a  blunt,  three-pronged  hook,  draws  out  the  roots 
and  leaves  them  in  the  vacant  row  next  to  that  in  which 
the  leaves  are  gathered.  Returning  as  before  described,  the 
workman  takes  the  next  row7  leaving  the  roots  with  those 
in  the  previous  row.  Thus  there  are  double  rows  in  the 
field,  one  of  the  tops  and  one  of  the  roots.  It  is  best  to  do 
this  work  when  the  land  is  dry,  and  the  roots  are  clean 
and  free  from  excess  of  soil.  The  tops  are  gathered  and 
may  be  heaped  in  the  field  on  high  ground,  where  water  will 
not  lodge,  and  covered,  first  with  straw  and  then  with  soil, 
sufficient  to  preserve  them  from  a  possible  frost.  The  roots 
are  gathered  in  the  same  way  and  so  protected  until  they 
may  be  finally  taken  to  a  cellar  or  put  away  in  pits  in  the 
field.  This  is  done  by  heaping  them  in  piles  of  ten  or  twenty 
bushels,  and  covering  them  with  straw,  and  then  with  soil 
sufficient  to  protect  them  through  the  Winter.  Eight  inches 
of  straw  and  the  same  of  earth  over  this  will  serve  to  keep 
them  safely. 

Roots  improve  by  keeping  in  this  way  through  the  Win- 


ROOTS.  157 

ter,  losing  some  of  their  moisture,  and,  ripening  completely, 
become  more  nutritious  as  the  season  advances.  In  feeding 
them  they  should  be  sliced  or  pulped  iiu  a  suitable  machine 
made  for  the  purpose,  and  to  be  procured  of  the  dealers  in 
farm  implements.  A  very  useful  machine  may  be  made 
by  any  ordinary  mechanic  in  the  way  here  slicwu.  The 
frame  consists  of  a  receptacle  for  the  roots  on.  the  top;  under 
this  is  a  wooden  roller  fitted  into  a  round  case;  under  this 
roller  is  studded  with  chisel-shapes  points  of  steel,  set  with 
the  bevel  up  and  in  rows  three  inches  apart.  These  work  in 
between  the  other  points  set  in  the  curved  frame  as  shown 
in  the  opened  end  of  the  machine.  The  space  under  the 
roller  is  open  to  let  the  roots  come  in  contact  with  these 


ROOT   PULPER. 

pointed  scrapers,  which  tear  the  roots  into  pulp  as  they  are 
drawn  between  the  moving  and  the  stationary  pointed 
chisel-edged  scrapers;  the  pulp  falling  into  the  receptacle 
beneath,  whence  it  is  shoveled  into  baskets  to  be  carried 
to  the  sheep  which  are  fed  in  troughs.  A  crank  handle  is 
of  course  fitted  on  the  end  of  the  shaft  of  the  cylinder, 
which  is  left  exposed  in  the  drawing  to  show  the  manner  of 
fitting  the  machine.  By  furnishing  both  sides  of  the  outer 
cylinder  with  these  scraping  stationary  teeth  the  machine 
may  be  worked  either  way.  A  full  grown  sheep  will  eat 
twenty  pounds  of  this  pulp  daily  when  fully  fed. 

The  most  desirable  other  roots  are  the  common  white 
globe  turnip  for  the  first  feeding,  the  ruta-baga  for  the 
next  feeding.  Of  the  mangels,  the  long  red  is  the  most 
productive,  twenty  to  thirty  tons  per  acre  being  easily  pro- 
duced under  good  culture.  Lane's  American  sugar  beet  is 
the  preference  of  the  author,  who  has  grown  as  much  of  it 
as  of  the  long  red  mangels,  and  roots  of  twenty  pounds  each. 


158  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

the  sugar  content  of  which  has  averaged  twelve  per  cent, 
thus  making  this  root  a  most  valuable  one  both  for  quantity 
and  nutritive  value.  Under  the  high  culture  of  the  best 
English,  and  indeed  some  American  farmers,  the  long  red 
mangel  has  produced  fifty  tons  to  the  acre,  and  considerably 
over  at  times.  The  yellow  globe  mangel  is  preferred  by 
some,  but  is  not  so  easily  grown  as  the  long  red  variety, 
which  has  made  roots  weighing  seventy  pounds  each  at 
times. 

ENSILAGE. 

The  introductioi  of  the  silo  made  some  twenty-three  or 
four  years  ago,  and  of  which  the  first  mention  was  made 
by  articles  in  the  American  Agriculturist  by  the  author, 
has  practically  revolutionized  the  Winter  feeding  of  cattle, 
and  equally  may  do  so  for  sheep.  For  as  this  bulky  food  is 
specially  adapted  for  ruminating  animals,  the  sheep  is 
equally  interested  with  the  cows  in  this  vast  improvement 
in  the  fodder  supply.  This  term  is  fully  justified  by  the  fact 
that  silage  will  feed  one  cow  per  acre  of  land  for  a  winter 
under  ensilage  crops,  at  the  least,  and  twice  this  is  possible. 
This  being  so,  it  follows  that  one  acre  of  land  should  be  able 
to  feed  twenty-eight  sheep  a  whole  winter,  taking  the  average 
equalization  of  seven  sheep  being  fed  as  easily  as  one  cow. 
But  on  the  most  reasonable  figuring,  these  results  may  be 
safely  calculated  upon. 

One  acre  of  good  corh  ensilage  will  yield  fifteen  tons, 
or  30,000  pounds.  Ten  pounds  a  day  will  make  a  good  ration 
for  a  sheep,  so  that  one  acre  will  afford  three  thousand  ra- 
tions. Feeding  two  hundred  days  in  the  year  there  is  a  sup- 
ply for  fifteen  sheep  for  a  long  Winter.  A  two  hundred 
pound  sheep  will  eat  one  peck  of  roots  a  day,  which  is  fifteen 
pounds,  and  twenty  pounds  a  day  is  heavy  root  feeding. 
But  roots  have  an  average  of  about  ninety  per  cent  of 
water  in  them,  while  ensila.ge  has  only  an  average  of  sixty 
to  seventy  per  cent  and  some  times  less  than  this.  So  that 
we  may  figure  on  one-fourth  less  ensilage  for  a  ration  than 
of  roots,  and  this  of  course  adds  to  the  feeding  value  of  the 
ensilage. 

The  practice  of  ensilage  is  based  on  the  fact  that  any 
green  fodder,  solidly  packed  into  an  air  tight  receptacle,  un- 


ENSILAGE.  159 

dergoes  a  process  of  fermentation,  by  which  considerable 
heat  is  produced.  That  in  this  development  of  heat  a  large 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  is  formed,  by  the  fermentation 
of  the  moist  vegetable  matter.  That  carbonic  acid,  being 
considerably  heavier  than  air,  it  forces  or  lifts  the  air  con- 
tained in  the  silo  among  the  fodder,  with  which  it  is  filled, 
quite  out  of  the  mass,  and  thus  practically  seals  it  against  the 
future  entrance  of  air,  and  thus  once  the  fermentation  is  com- 
pleted the  silage  is  preserved  for  an  indefinite  time.  When 
the  author  studied  this  matter  of  ensilage  at  one  of  the  great 
French  sugar  beet  farms  connected  with  a  sugar  factory, 
the  leaves  of  the  beets  were  then  being  packed  into  a  silo, 
then  n  mere  pit  in  the  ground,  as  they  had  consisted  of 
during  more  than  a  century,  or  several  of  them,  during 
which  they  had  been  common  in  parts  of  Europe,  especially 
in  Hungary,  where  they  were  used  for  preserving  green 
corn  stalks.  One  of  these  pits  was  opened  after  having  been 
kept  for  three  years.  The  leaves  of  the  beets  were  taken 
out  and  fed  to  the  oxen  by  which  the  beets  were  drawn  to 
the  sugar  factory.  And  they  were  in  the  very  best  condi- 
tion of  preservation,  only  having  a  brown  color,  as  the  result 
of  the  heat  by  which  they  were  partly  cooked.  These  leaves 
were  eaten  with  avidity  by  the  cattle,  and  it  was  their 
staple  food  for  the  year  round.  This  ensilage  was  called 
brown  hay. 

Since  then  these  simple  pit-silos  were  greatly  improved 
by  the  European  farmers,  especially  by  those  of  sufficient 
means  to  build  expensive  stone  structures,  with  cemented 
pits  at  the  bottom  of  them.  But  the  Yankee — always  ahead 
of  the  world— soon  improved  on  this  process,  which  made 
sour  ensilage  only,  by  securing  perfect  isolation  from  the  at- 
mosphere by  which  the  acid  of  the  silage  was  produced. 
We  owe  the  discovery  of  sweet  ensilage  to  Prof.  Miles  of 
the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  by  whom  the  completely 
air  tight  silo  was  invented,  and  this  discovery  has  been  of 
such  importance  to  our  agriculture  as  to  have  made  the  dis- 
coverer entitled  to  the  thanks,  if  not  more  substantial  re- 
ward, of  the  American  people. 

Since  then  the  silo  has  been  simplified,  and  made  more 
useful,  the  device  of  the  round  or  tub  silo  having  been  the 
last  addition  to  the  process  of  ensilage.  This  silo  is  by  far 


160  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

the  most  economical  and  sensible.  It  is  a  mere  circular  tank 
of  any  size  that  may  be  desired,  made  of  two-inch  staves 
fitted  together  as  a  barrel  is,  by  beveling  the  joints  and  bind- 
ing the  staves  tightly  together  by  strong  iron  hoops  provided 
with  screw  bolts  by  which  the  bands  are  drawn  together. 

It  is  an  easy  matter  to  construct  a  silo  of  this  kind  in 
this  way,  and  much  better  and  cheaper  than  the  ordinary 
square  or  oblong  one.  As  the  principle  of  the  construction 
is  the  same  under  all  circumstances,  only  this  kind  will  be 
described. 

This  principle  is  that  the  silo  must  be  free  from  moisture 
and  entirely  air  proof.  The  principle  on  which  the  silage 
is  made  is  that  it  should  be  packed  into  the  silo  as  tightly  as 
possible,  so  that  as  little  air  may  be  included  among  the 
silage  as  can  be  avoided.  The  silage  should  preferably  be 
cut  into  small  pieces  or  shredded,  to  secure  this  indispen- 
sable compactness.  Under  whatever  circumstances  a  silo 
is  made,  or  used,  these  indispensable  conditions  must  be 
secured. 

The  round  or  tub  silo  is  made  of  narrow  staves  six  inches 
wide,  and  two  thick.  The  edges  of  these  are  beveled  to 
the  necessary  angle  to  make  an  exact  fit  of  the  edges  of  the 
staves,  precisely  as  is  done  in  making  a  tub  or  barrel. 
It  will  be  evident  that  each  side  of  each  stave  should  have 
just  such  an  angle  or  bevel  as  will  fit  tightly  and  evenly 
along  the  edges.  The  most  convenient  size  for  keeping 
the  ensilage  is  fifteen  feet  diameter,  which  will  make 
it  forty-five  feet  in  circumference,  or  as.  near  this  as  is 
practicable.  There  will  then  be  ninety  staves  in  the  circle, 
and  as  there  are  three  hundred  and  sixty  degrees  in  a  circle 
it  follows  that  four  degrees  must  go  with  each  of  the  ninety 
staves.  This  equally  of  course  makes  two  degrees  of  bevel 
on  each  edge  of  the  stave.  Any  one,  even  if  little  skilled  in 
carpenter  work,  will  be  able  to  lay  off  this  bevel  on  the  edge 
of  the  staves,  and1  they  are  then  ready  for  setting  up. 

Necessarily  the  foundation  is  of  the  greatest  importance, 
for  this  must  be  water  and  air  tight.  It  is  best  made  of 
cement  in  the  shape  here  shown.  The  foundation  should  be 
dug  out  two  feet  or  so  but  it  must  be  made  in  dry  ground, 
otherwise  it  is  well  to  lay  two  rows  of  drain  tile  across  it 
to  avoid  any  burst  of  water  up  through  the  bottom. 


ENSILAGE.  161 

The  bottom  and  the  side  of  it  are  then  cemented  with 
water  lime,  and  three  parts  of  sharp,  cleaai  sand,  laid  at 
least  three  inches  thick  and  up  the  edge  and  under  the  sill, 
which  should  be  safely  bedded  in  the  cement,  or  well  mixed 
mortar  of  lime  and  sand,  with  an  equal  quantity  of  the 

cement  with  the  lime.  The 
sill  may  be  eight  inches  wide 
and  three  thick,  with  a  second 
one  laid  on  this  four  inches 
narrower.  To  secure  the  foun- 
dation a  bolt  is  built  in  the 
concrete  or  cement,  as  shown, 
with  a  broad  washer  on  the 
bottom  of  it,  and  this  bolt 
g=3===gs=5£~>^.  y  should  pass  through  both  the 
timbers  of  the  sills,  as  shown, 

FOUNDATION   FOR  A  ROUND     th(J   gills  be}ng   gcrewed  dowQ 

by  the  nut  on  the  top  of  the 
upper  one. 

The  staves  made  of  dry,  sound,  3x4  inch  pine,  are  then 
set  up.  They  are  supported  at  first  by  stays  in  the  inside, 
and  outside  as  well,  besides  being  bolted  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  sill.  The  sills  are  of  course  cut  in  rounded  sections, 
to  make  the  circle  desired. 

When  the  staves  are  set  up  and  secured  against  falling, 
a  hoop  of  two-inch  iron,  half  an  inch  thick,  and  bent  to  the 
curve  in  a  tire  setter,  as  for  a  tire,  is  fitted  on  three  feet 
from  the  ground  supported  in  any  convenient  manner  in 
their  place,  until  they  are  drawn  together  by  bolts  and 
flanges  made  at  each  end  of  each  strip.  As  soon  as  the  first 
is  fitted  the  next  is  put  in  place,  four  feet  above  the  first 
one,  and  secured  in  the  same  manner.  This  is  done  to  the 
top  where  the  last  one  is  placed  four  inches  from  it. 

As  the  staves  are  set  up,  those  where  the  doors  will  come 
for  emptying  or  tilling  the  silo  are  cut  out  of  each  stave  in 
such  a  way  that,  being  held  together  by  strong  bands,  they 
will  fit  in  and  may  be  taken  out  as  may  be  needed.  Or 
they  may  be  hinged  if  desired  in  any  convenient  way, 
but  opening  inside. 

The  doors  should  come  between  the  bands,  so  that  they 
do  not  interfere  with  them  in  any  way.  Of  course  the 


162  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

doors  must  be  carefully  fitted  so  as  to  preserve  the  condi- 
tions required  in  the  silo. 

A  conical  roof  is  put  on,  and  the  thing  is  complete.  It 
Is  a  desirable  plan  to  build  this  silo  in  the  corner  of  the  barn 
or  feeding  shed,  so  that  the  silage  may  be  thrown  ouf,  and 
two  rows  of  doors,  one  outside  for  filling,  and  one  i/uside  for 
taking  out,  may  be  put  in  for  convenience  of  use.  The  roof 
must  of  course  be  rain  and  snow  proof.  The  outside  should 
be  painted  two  coats  of  the  iron  paint. 

FILLING  THE  SILO. 

Corn  grown,  as  mentioned  previously,  that  is  iln  rows 
three  feet  apart  and  spaced  in  the  rows  eight  inches  apart, 
is  the  best  crop  for  ensilage.  It  may  be  cut  when  the  grains 
are  glazed  or  left  to  fully  ripen,  and  if  they  are  partly  dry 
it  is  in  no  way  hurtful.  If  they  have  been  nipped  by  a  frost 
or  are  too  dry  for  the  full  degree  of  heating  and  fermenta- 
tion, they  should  be  wetted  freely  when  they  are  put  into  the 
silo,  and  trampled  down  as  firmly  as  possible,  especially 
around  the  edge  of  the  silo  so  as  to  force  out  as  much  of  the 
air  as  possible.  It  will  be  a  saving  of  the  top  of  the  silage 
if  it  is  covered  for  a  foot  or  two  with  dry  chaff  or  cut 
straw.  This  will  absorb  the  dampness  escaping  as  the 
silage  heats,  and  ferments,  and  save  the  top  for  a  few  inches 
which  would  otherwise  mold  by  the  action  of  the  escaping 
heat  and  dampness. 

Any  green  crop  may  be  ensiloed.  And  it  is  a  good  way 
to  use  surplus  straw  to  cut  it  and  pack  it  in  with  the  green 
stuff,  either  mixed  or" in  layers.  Dr.  Voelcker,  in  his  experi- 
ments made  for  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England, 
found  that  this  mixture  of  straw,  even  in  a  barn  mow,  with 
quite  green  clover  or  other  similar  stuff,  in  layers  of  a  foot 
of  each,  has  been  so  favorably  acted  upon  by  the  moist  heat 
that  the  whole  has  cured  perfectly,  and  increased  the  straw 
in  feeding  value  to  an  equality  with  the  clover.  Thus  by 
this  method,  a  commonly  wasted  product  may  be  utilized 
by  the  silo  -with  much  economy.  In  taking  out  the  silage 
for  use  it  is  not  necessary  to  cover  the  fresh  surface,  as  this 
has  been  cured  so  thoroughly  by  the  heat  of  the  silo  as  to 
keep  in  good  condition  until  it  can  be  used  for  the  feeding. 

Sheep  must  not  have  sour  food;    but  the  little  acidity 


FEEDING  LAMBS  163 

occurring  in  a  silo,  even  only  moderately  well  managed, 
is  not  injurious  to  them.  The  common  ration  of  ten  pounds 
a  day  for  a  full  grown  sheep  would  be  equal  to  seventy 
pounds  a  day  for  a  thousand  pound  steer  or  cow,  so  that 
about  six  pounds  a  day  for  an  average  sheep  will  be  gen- 
eraly  sufficient  along  with  such  dry  food  as  hay  or  oat  straw, 
or  any  of  the  dry  fodders.  Too  much  silage  is  apt,  as  roots 
will,  tokeepthe  sheep  dirty  on  account  of  the  looseness  always 
due  to  succulent  food.  Silage  thus  made,  will  havegrainenough 
to  make  a  full  ration,  without  other  grain  food,  except  a 
handful  of  bran  to  counteract  any  possible  looseness  of  the 
bowels. 

FEEDING  LAMBS. 

The  following  letter  from  the  facile  pen  of  Jos.  E.  Wing 
of  Ohio,  tells  a  pleasant  and  "ow*er  true  story"  on  this  sub- 
ject of  feeding  lambs.  It  appeared  in  the  columns  of  the 
American  Sheep  Breeder,  quite  recently,  and  doubtless 
it  will  b^  read  with  interest  and  profit  to  all  concerned: 

"Apples  of  gold  in  pitchers  of  silver!"  That  is  the  pleas- 
ing characterization  of  "words  fitly  spoken"  made  by  one 
Mr.  Solomon  some  years  ago.  When  is  a  word  more  fitly 
spoken  than  when  one  man  tells  another  that  his  honest 
efforts  are  appreciated  and  his  good  intuitions  recognized? 
Thanks,  kind  friends,  for  your  generous  esteem,  and  thanks, 
genial  editors,  for  your  rather  unprofessional  way  of  letting 
one  reader  say  kind  things  of  another. 

Let  me  see,  "where  was  I  at?"  Well,  when  last  I  wrote 
we  could  not  turn  in  any  direction  on  Woodland  Farm 
without  seeing  sheep  and  lambs,  Mojntanas  in  the  big  barn, 
ewes  at  the  little  barn  and  white-fleeced  lambs  playing  in 
the  alley  ways  and  munching  their  corn  meal  and  bran  in 
their  feeder. 

Now  they  have  all  gone  to  Buffalo,  the  drafts  have  all 
come  back  and  gone  to  bank,  and  it  is  time  to  take  account 
of  profits.  For  there  are  profits,  this  year,  as  nearly  every 
year,  while  we  have  not  grown  suddenly  rich  the  balance 
is  on  the  right  side  of  the  ledger.  We  like  to  tell  of  the  best 
things.  Our  best  was  a  small  matter,  little  considered, 
and  given  little  time  or  attention  and  from  which  little  was 
expected.  Its  outcome  was  a  surprise  to  us, 


164  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


Here  are  the  details: 

21  lambs,  weight  1280  Ibs,  price  $5.75 173.60 

22  ewes,  weight  2480  Ibs,  price  $3  60 89.28 

24  fleeces 24.00 


Expense— 24  ewes  at  $3 $72.00 

5  tons  hay 20.00 

100  bushels  corn 25.00 

1  ton  wheat  bran 12.00 

129.00 


Balance  profit 

Two  of  these  ewes  died  and  I  kept  at  home  some  of  the 
ewe  lambs,  so  that  the  real  profits  are  greater  than  these 
figures,  but  these  are  the  actual  sales  thus  far,  and  there  is 
no  guess  work,  as  the  ewes  actually  went  with  their  lambs 
to  market,  only  I  have  guessed  a  little  as  to  the  amount  of 
hay  and  grain  consumed,  as  they  were  fed  along  with  the 
other  ewes  that  have  not  been  sold,  but  I  think  that  I  have 
allowed  very  liberally  for  the  amount  of  food  eaten. 

Now  it  is  literally  true  that  this  lot  of  stuff  did  not  re- 
ceive twenty  minutes  a  day  of  attention.  A  self-feeder  was 
kept  tilled  with  corn  meal  and  wheatbranand  to  this  the  lambs 
went  at  will,  and  the  ewes  were  mainly  fed  011  clover  and 
oat  hay  attid  ear  corn  thrown  to  them  in  their  hay  mangers, 
which  are  the  ones  that  have  troughs  in  combination.  A 
little  oil  meal  was  given  the  lambs  and  I  think  that  it  was 
a  decided  benefit,  and  have  not  charged  it  to  them,  because 
I  am  confident  that  I  have  charged  them  with  too  much  of 
other  things,  and  I  do  not  know  just  what  amount  of  it  they 
ate.  These  lambs  were  dropped  in  March  from  common 
ewes  with  a  dash  of  Shrop  blood  in  some  of  them  and  were 
sired  by  our  Dorset  ram,  Alan.  They  have  made  us 
more  money  than  the  earlier  lambs  dressed  at  home  and 
sent  by  express  to  New  York,  when  the  trouble  of  dressing 
and  shipipng  is  taken  into  account. 

If  these  profits  are  much  less  than  sometimes  reported, 
let  us  remember  that  days  of  great  profits  on  small  trans- 
actions are,  perhaps,  about  over  in  this  world. 

I  am  sure  that  the  fertility  left  on  the  farm  by  these 
sheep,  as  by  all  our  sheep,  much  more  than  paid  for  the 
trouble  of  caring  for  them. 

When  the  last  of  the  fat  lambs  was  on  the  car  and  be- 
fore the  draft  could  get  back  to  vex  us  we  threw  our  cares 


FEEDING  LAMBS.  165 

and  old  overalls  in  the  corner  of  the  woodshed,  gathered  up 
our  fishing-tackle,  blankets  and  "tarpaulin,"  raided  the 
wife's  stores  for  a  few  loaves  of  bread,  a  hunk  o'  bacon,  not 
forgetting  frying  pan  and  coffee  pot,  and  away  for  the  rush- 
ing stream  and  a  few  days  of  the  dear  old  carnp  life. 

What  a  delight  it  all  was!  We  felt  like  boys  out  of 
school;  the  miles  of  lovely  Ohio  fields  flew  past,  and  before 
nightfall  our  little  tent  was  pitched  by  a  great  rock  under 
the  green  lindens,  and  across  tLe  tiny  meadow  of  the  glen 
the  river  gurgled  and  splashed  with  constant  soothing.  What 
a  rest  it  was.  How  the  tense  and  ragged  nerves  relaxed, 
and  the  spirit  ceased  to  chafe  the  flesh  or  reproach  it  for 
lack  of  energy.  What  a  sense  of  peace  pervaded  the  rock- 
walled  glen.  To  lean  against  the  cliff  inspired  one  with 
calm.  Here  was  something  changeless,  something  that  one 
could  bet  on,  not  up  to-day  and  down  to-morrow,  like  a  con- 
founded market.  How  we  clambered  up  and  down  the 
rocky  trails  wondering  with  the  old  wonder  at  the 
deep  pools  of  green  water,  at  the  fallen  rocks 
crowned  with  green  shmbs  and  sturdy  hemlocks.  How  we 
caressed  the  clinging  ferns,  anchored  each  one  in  its  rift  of 
stone.  How  we  threw  flies  in  the  deep  pools,  each  one  hold- 
ing a  prodigy  of  a  bass  if  only  we  could  have  "luck."  How 
we  caught,  at  least  some  of  them,  and  how  we  made  the 
dear  old-fashioned  camp  fire  and  fried  the  bacon  and  fish 
as  in  our  younger  days,  and  then  the  dear,  weak,  smoky, 
old-fashioned  coffee  without  cream,  drank  steaming  hot  from 
tin  cups,  and  the  lying  on  our  blankets  under  the  stars, 
the  camp  fire  burning  low,  and  the  old  memories  of  happier 
days  when  the  blood  of  youth  coursed  swiftly  through  our 
veins.  The  jokes  we  told!  The  songs  we  tried  to  sing  (with 
voices  cracked,  some  from  calling  sheep),  and  how  we  lay 
in  our  tent  awake  long  hours  of  the  night  listening  to  the 
murmuring  river  and  wondering  why  Mother  Earth  was  so 
much  more  solid-meated  than  she  used  to  be,  or  our  bones 
so  much  nearer  the  surface,  and  then  in  the  early  dawn 
how  the  little  wrens  called  to  each  other  along  the  cliffs  and 
the  vireos  and  warblers  and  all  the  rest  of  the  woods'  crew 
told  their  pleased  expectations,  and  how  we  arose  at  sun- 
rise and  felt  refreshed  and  glad  that  we  were  alive  and  that 
we  were  on  this  dear,  dewy,  delicious  green  old  earth!  Oh, 


166  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

brother  shepherd,  I  assure  you  it  will  pay  you  to  get  away 
from  your  work  and  your  cares  11,0 w  and  then.  Don  t  go  to 
the  cities,  either,  reeking  with  bacteria  and  stale  beer, 
pervaded  with  avarice  and  bunco  men.  Why,  I  got  home 
yesterday,  and  am  at  least  three  years  younger  than  I  was 
last  week. 

And,  now  what?  Why,  we  will  do  it  all  over  again,  of 
course,  and  try  to  do  better.  Already  we  have  our  first 
loads  of  alfalfa  hay  in  the  barn  and  are  planning  to  get  150 
or  more  after  it.  And  it  shall  be  -cut  early  and  the  leaves 
shall  all  be  on  it,  and  it  shall  be  nicely  cured  and  smell  sweet 
enough  to  scent  niy  lady's  handkerchief.  And  the  corn,  too. 
it  has  been  dressed  with  many  a  load  of  manure  from  the 
sheds,  and  when  summer  days  come  we  shall  keep  the 
ground  loose  and  the  weeds  out  and  it  will,  I  am  sure, 
grow  and  yield  the  big  piles  of  white  and  yellow  ears,  and 
every  one  of  them  almost  shall  slip  down  some  lamb's 
throat.  For  lamb  feeding  is  our  chosen  profession,  and  no 
tales  of  profits  to  be  had  from  the  feeding  of  cattle  or  swine 
shall  tempt  us  to  "try  our  luck"  at  one  thing  or  another. 
No,  the  man  wrho  jumps  after  the  departing  train,  is  apt  to 
fall  in  the  ditch  rather  than  into  the  velvet-lined  seat  that 
he  desires.  Lamb  feeding  may  not  be  more  profitable  than 
other  branches  of  stock  feeding,  but  it  is  not,  on  the  whole, 
less  profitable  and  it  is  a  science  that  is  learned,  generally, 
at  the  cost  of  some  dear  experience.  Nowr  that  I  am  a  shoe- 
maker, I  shall  stick  to  my  last. 

Lapt  year,  dating  our  year  as  we  do  from  the  day  the 
last  lamb  is  sold,  w?e  fed  625  sheep  and  lambs  for  mutton 
and  kept  besides  something  like  100  ewes  of  good  blood  with 
their  lambs.  Besides  this  stock  we  had  some  12  cows  and 
10  horses,  and  perhaps  on  the  average  15  head  of  swine. 
Except  some  summer  pasture  hired,  Woodland  Farm  of  200 
acres  has  fed  all  this  stock  and  carried  over  this  year  some 
40  tons  of  hay  and  600  bushels  of  corn.  Wre  bought  a  few 
tons  of  clover  hay,  but  sold  more  than  as  much  of  other 
hay.  The  careful  saving  and  applying  of  manure  did  it. 
Also  each  year  we  find  the  farm  producing  more  of  this 
manure,  and  for  all  that  I  can  see  this  increase  will  be  con- 
stant from  year  to  year.  That  is,  the  more  the  farm  is  fed 
the  more  it  will  produce,  and  the  more  sheep  it  will  feed, 


FEEDING  LAMBS.  167 

and  the  more  we  will  have  to  feed  the  farm  with,  to  feed 
more  sheep,  to  feed  more  acres  of  land,  to  grow  more  to 
feed  the  sheep,  and  so  on,  to  end — where?  I  care  not  how 
far  the  process  goes  on.  I  get  a  small  margin  of  profit  from 
each  mouth  that  the  farm  and  I  fill. 

What  do  we  grow  for  stock  food?  Corn,  clover,  alfalfa 
and  oat  hay. 

What  do  we  like  best  for  a  forage  crop?  Alfalfa.  Our 
land  is  not  all  dry  enough  or  fertile  enough  to  grow  it.  Next 
and  everywhere  available  comes  red  clover.  Oat  hay,  if  cut 
when  in  bloom,  is  very  good  indeed  amd  will  make  milk 
in  ewes  or  fatten  lambs.  We  seed  our  clover  and  alfalfa 
with  oats  and  mow  for  hay,  and  thus  far  have  not  failed 
to  get  a  good  stand.  We  use  no  grain  but  corn  for  fattening, 
but  like  oats  for  thoroughbred  lambs  or  ewes. 

The  intensely  practical  character  of  Mr.  Wing  is  in  no 
way  clouded  by  his  love  of  a  pleasant  rest,  and  it  savors  of 
ancient  times,  when  the  shepherds  rested  under  the  shade 
of  a  spreading  beech,  and  sang  songs  and  made  love  to  the 
shepherdesses,  whose  hands  carried  the  crook,  and  whose 
care  for  the  tender  lambs  is  set  forth  so  picturesquely  and 
pleasantly  in  the  old  school  book  of  the  Latin  poets,  which 
every  shepherd  boy  should  study,  not  only  for  the  accurate 
pictures  of  ancient  shepherd  life,  but  as  well  for  the  valua- 
ble details  of  the  good  management  of  a  flock.  It  may  not 
be  out  of  place  in  these  more  serious  and  essentially  prac- 
tical pages,  to  recommend  every  shepherd,  old  or  young, 
to  procure  and  study  these  ways  of  the  old  Roman  shep- 
herds, who  certainly  are  able  to  tell  us  much  of  present  in- 
terest on  the  subject  of  the  shepherd's  pleasant  ajid  profita- 
ble occupation.  It  brings  us  into  love  with  a  sheep. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  figures  given  by  Mr.  WTing 
include  the  original  cost  of  the  ewes  in  the  account,  and  this 
cost  is  of  course  to  be  added  to  the  profit  The  experience 
of  the  author  in  feeding  lambs,  goes  to  show  that  this  state- 
ment is  really  under  the  possible  figures  of  profit,  and  it  is 
to  be  considered  that  to  a  farmer,  the  considerable  quantity 
of  the  best  kind  of  manure  made  is  quite  sufficient  to  pay 
well  for  the  time  and  care  spent  in  the  keeping  of  a  flock. 


168  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

FEEDING  LAMBS  IN  A  CORN  FIELD. 

There  are  many  wastes  on  a  farm  that  may  be  gathered 
up  by  a  flock  of  sheep.  All  these  count  then  to  account  of 
profit.  One  of  these  wastes  that  is  worth  many  dollars,  not 
only  for  the  feed  gained,  but  for  the  comfort  and  shade  iin 
the  latter  days  of  the  Summer,  when  the  sun's  burning  rays 
bear  hard  on  the  wooly  coats,  is  the  sprouts  from  the  roots 
of  the  corn,  the  suckers  as  they  are  commonly  termed. 
These  are  eagerly  gathered  up  by  the  lambs,  newly  de- 
prived of  the  company  of  their  dams,  and  being  weaned. 
These  lambs  wander  in  the  comfortable  shade,  nipping  here 
and  there,  and  feeding  well  on  this  agreeable  and  sweetly 
succulent  food.  It  is  well  to  bell  a  few  of  the  lambs,  for 
the  old  rule  of  the  shepherd,  careful  against  accident,  to 
"count  your  sheep  at  least  once  a  day,  and  every  time  you 
see  them,"  and  this  soon  becomes  such  a  fixed  habit  that 
one  spontaneously  complies  with  it  without  thinking  of  it,  is 
to  be  followed  constantly.  For  one  lamb  or  two  may  be- 
come loose  behind  and  the  flies  may  blow  them,  and  this  is 
so  almost  hopeless  a  case  if  neglected,  that  the  lamb,  or  the 
ewe  either,  may  perish  miserably  before  it  is  suspected, 
becoming  a  living  prey  to  those  devouring  pests.  Lambs 
on  this  account  should  invariably  be  docked  when  two 
weeks  old.  This  is  done  with  the  greatest  ease,  as  well  as 
their  emasculation  at  the  same  time,  by  the  use  of  a  pair 
of  sharp  shears.  The  lamb  is  taken  under  the  left  arm  and 
held  so  that  the  skin,  being  drawn  back,  the  tail  may  be 
clipped  off  at  one  cut.  Then  the  lamb  being  taken  between 
the  knees  and  the  scrotum  being  held  conveniently  is  wholly 
clipped  off,  the  rather  rough  cut  being  a  preventive  of  bleed- 
ing. A  pinch  of  blue-stone,  finely  powdered,  carried  in  a 
pouch  at  the  shepherd's  side  applied  to  keep  off  the  flies,  and 
stop  any  bleeding,  and  heal  the  wound,  completes  the  opera- 
tion, which  is  done  several  times  in  the  time  the  lines  are 
written. 

If  the  lambs  bite  one  of  the  lowest  ears  of  the  conn  it 
will  do  no  harm  to  it,  and  the  owner  will  never  miss  it, 

REARING  HOUSE  LAMBS. 

Of  late  years  a  large  market  has  been  made  in  the  large 
cities  for  early  lambs.  Formerly  these  were  not  able  to  be 


REARING  HOUSE  LAMBS.  169 

produced  before  late  in  February  or  March,  when  at  the 
beginning  of  the  business,  it  was  easy  to  get  ten  dollars  for 
a  forty  pound  lamb  live  weight.  The  demand  for  the 
Easter  festival  first  brought  on  this  industry.  The  forward 
ewes  were  highly  fed  at  the  end  of  Summer  and  coupled 
in  September,  which  is  quite  possible  by  high  feeding,  both 
ewes  and  the  rams,  for  both  must  be  forced.  The  demand 
has  grown  to  considerable  proportions  of  late  years,  and  has 
led  to  the  use  of  Dorset  ewes,  as  the  lamb  bearers;  these 
sheep  having  a  habit  of  taking  the  ram  at  any  time  of  the 
year.  The  high  prices  paid  will  return  the  cost  of  the  ewe 
up  to  the  time  of  selling  the  lamb,  and  for  her  feeding,  atnd 
a  hundred  per  cent  profit  besides.  This  is  well  worth  the 
attention  of  all  concerned,  within  two  hundred  miles  of  a 
city,  or  indeed  within  twenty  four  hours  of  the  market,  as 
the  weather  permits  of  this  time  for  shipment  and  delivery. 
So  that  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Northern  States,  a  large  part 
of  Canada,  and  as  much  of  the  South,  may  be  included  in 
the  region  in  which  this  business  may  be  carried  on.  The 
Southern  States  may  be  especially  favored,  in  this  respect, 
for  lambs  may  be  had  in  the  open  field,  and  fed  and  pre- 
pared for  market  with  far  less  cost  than  in  any  other  part 
of  this  continent,  while  in  the  colder  North  the  more  expen- 
sive method  of  house  rearing,  sometimes  with  artificial 
warmth,  may  be  needed  for  the  growing  of  the  lambs. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  there  is  more  profit  in  selling 
a  lamb  at  eight  weeks  old,  than  one  at  as  many  months. 
And  this  is  the  most  prominent  fact  in  this  case.  The 
method  practiced  is  to  breed  the  ewes  (the  Dorsets  come 
first  in  this  choice  of  ewes)  at  the  required  time,  and  keep 
them  and  the  lambs  in  suitable  houses,  well  provided  as  to 
convenience  and  healthfulness,  feeding  them— forcing  them 
in  fact— to  the  highest  milk  product  by  rich  food,  and  if 
needed  by  artificial  warmth  so  that  the  lambs  make  a  rapid 
growth,  and  become  fat  for  sale  at  the  opening  of  the 
market,  when  of  course  the  first  offered  bring  the  highest 
prices.  The  market  opens  a  short  time  before  Christmas, 
when  the  first  demand  occurs  among  those  who  can  wrell 
afford  all  the  luxuries  of  life.  It  is  a  fact  to  be  considered 
as  indisputable,  that  it  pays  best  to  cater  for  this  class  of 
purchasers,  who  spend  their  money  without  counting  it, 


170 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP 


on  the  principle  that  "easy  comes,  easy  goes."  And  of  late 
a  good  many  flocks  have  been  started  to  supply  this  increas- 
ing demand,  in  all  the  large  cities. 

The  kind  of  house  required  is  one  of  good  size  divided 
into  a  number  of  pens,  in  which  the  lambs  are  kept.  It  is 
a  lamb  house  in  fact,  for  them  alone,  the  lambs  being  put 
in  it  with  the  ewes  for  a  short  time  until  the  ewes  are  well 
acquainted  with  their  business,  when  they  may  be  fed  in 
another  house,  or  if  not  too  costly  a  matter  the  ewes  and 
lambs  may  be  confined  in  the  same  house.  The  pens  are 
arranged  in  rows,  with  broad  alley  between  them.  Here 
the  ewes  are  fed  while  the  lambs  are  kept  in  the  pens.  The 


drawing  given  shows  a  lamb  house  in  which  two  hundred 
lambs  may  be  kept.  The  building  is  eighty  by  forty  feet, 
with  an  additional  shed  in  the  front,  half  the  width,  of  the 
main  shed.  It  is  scarcely  to  be  recommended  to  undertake  the 
hot  house  system,  with  artificial  heating,  unless  one  is  sure 
of  such  a  market  for  the  lambs  as  will  justify  the  cost  of  the 
building,  and  heating  apparatus,  wrhich  should  be  supplied 
by  steam  rather  than  by  any  other  method,  on  account  of 
the  safety  of  it.  The  cost,  however,  is  too  great  for  the 
ordinary  lamb  grower,  whose  products  will  sell  later  at  a 
less  price,  but  with  a  far  less  cost  and  more  profit.  This 
house  will  be  found  amply  suitable  for  a  Southern  location, 
where  the  temperature  is  never  too  severe  for  the  safe  rear- 
ing of  lambs  coming  even  in  December,  or  so  much  earlier 
as  to  be  sent  to  market  in  this  month.  A  lamb  is  really  a 


REARING  HOUSE  LAMBS.  171 

hardy  animal,  and  if  sheltered  from  the  cold  winds  and  rain 
it  will  withstand  a  low  temperature  keeping  warm  and  com- 
forable  by  nestling  together  in  their  woolly  coats. 

In  the  house  shown,  there  are  two  rows  of  pens  for 
lambs  at  one  end,  and  a  long  pen  for  ewes  with  new-born 
lambs  which  should  stay  with  the  dams  a  few  days,  until 
fully  hardened  to  the  separation.  This  ewe  pen  is  forty  by 
twenty  feet,  and  has  a  hay  rack  around  three  sides.  It  will 
hold  a  hundred  ewes  without  crowding,  by  the  use  of  the 
adjacent  space  which  is  divided  off  from  the  rest  of  the 
house  by  hurdles.  This  easy  kind  of  fencing  is  shown  by 
illustration,  and  it  may  be  moved  about  without  difficulty  and 
set  up  by  wiring  the  ends  together  by  a  loop.  If  set  in 
s-traight  rows  the  lower  ends  of  the  stakes  are  pointed  and 
driven  down  int&  holes  made  by  an  iron  bar  in  the  earth 

floor.  They  may  be  set  as 
.  fl  TT  p  (  shown  in  one  place  in  dou- 

_JJ jj ^^^  ble  rows,  thus  forming  an 

||  excellent  feeding  rack  for 
i  hay.  The  shepherd  will 
II  very  soon  find  ways  to 

LK-  •  H  n~~^  adapt  the  principle  on 

HURDLE.  which  this  house  is  con- 

structed to  his  special  needs 

and  vary  the  arrangements  to  suit  these.  By  providing  feed 
racks  in  the  addition  to  the  house,  in  the  manner  of  a  shed, 
with  a  low  sloping  roof,  a  considerable  addition  may  be 
made  to  the  capacity  of  the  house. 

At  times  it  is  necessary  to  hold  the  ewes  for  the  lambs  to 
suck,  and  while  it  is  generally  the  case  that  the  shepherd 
knows  his  sheep— by  their  complexion  as  one  once  paid— yet  it 
is  desirable  to  mark  them  in  some  easy  way.  This  is  done 
by  numbering  the  ewes  and  their  lambs  with  a  red  stamp 
on  the  right  ear,  so  that  in  case  of  need  the  ewe  ajnd  her 
lamb  may  be  recognized.  The  instinct  of  a  ewe  is  so  acute, 
however,  that  she  will  easily  find  the  lamb  by  the  scent 
of  it.  It  is  quite  frequently  the  case,  however,  that  a  ewe 
will  be  quite  neglectful  of  the  lamb,  and  to  insure  the  due 
attention  to  the  lambs,  is  by  far  the  most  important  part  of 
the  shepherd's  business.  Ccaistant  attention  is  the  secret  of 
rearing  early  lambs  if  profit  is  expected. 


172 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


FEEDING    G  It  ASS    LAMBS. 

When  the  lambs  are  weaned  they  must  not  be  neglected. 
Anything  neglected  brings  all  concerned  to  shame,  as  the 
proverb  says  very  truly.  And  a  newly  weaned  lamb  will  be 
a  sorry  object  if  treated  with  neglect.  It  is  desirable  to  feed 
the  lambs  before  they  are  weaned,  and  while  pasturing  with 
the  ewes.  Some  little  grain  food,  as  chopped  oats  with  as 
much  bran,  should  be  given  them  in  a  creep  in  which  a 
shallow  trough  is  kept  with  a  moderate  allowance  of  the 

grain  food.  The  creep  is 
a  useful  contrivance  by 
which  the  lambs  may 
squeeze  themselves 
through  bars  held  by 
springs,  and  on  which 
rollers  are  put  to  avoid 
tearing  the  fleeces.  The 
rollers  a  r  e  arranged 
with  springs,  and  a  slot 
in  which  the  ends  slide, 
so  that  they  open  under 
the  pressure  of  the 
lambs,  and  close  when  they  have  passed  through.  Constant 
watchfulness  is  needed  to  avoid  the  possible  occurrence  of 
looseness  of  the  bowels,  which  is  an  indication  of  indigestion, 
and  waste  of  food,  but  still  more  of  a  rapid  loss  of  condition, 
by  which  the  growth  may  be  set  back  a  month  or  more, 
thus  destroying  the  profit  of  the  feeding.  A  lamb  must  be 
kept  continually  growing.  It  is  this  steady  advance  that 
counts.  Fits  and  starts,  and  frequent  stoppage,  must  not 
be  permitted,  and  it  need  not  be  if  due  care  is  given. 

An  instructive  record  of  the  feeding  of  a  large  lot  of 
lambs  is  given  by  Mr.  John  E.  Law  of  Colorado.  He  writes: 
"Last  winter  I  made  something  of  a  comparative  test  with 
three  classes  of  lambs— a  good  sample  lot  of-  Mexican  lambs, 
a  lot  of  native  Colorado  Shropshire  lambs  (bred  by  my 
neighbor,  J.  A.  Slayton),  and  my  owrn  native  bred  Colorado 
Delaine  Merinos.  On  Dec.  3d  the  whole  number  was 
weighed  up  and  put  in  pens  of  about  500  each : 


A   LAMB   CREEP. 


FEEDING  GKASS  LAMBS.  173 

502  Mexicans,  averaging 54V£    Ibs. 

498  Second  Merinos,  averaging 43 

499  Top  Shrops,  averaging 58 

500  Top  Merinos,  averaging 52  1-5 

WHICH   LEFT  A  MIXED  LOT  OP 

175  Mexicans,  averaging 47 8-10 

71  Merinos,  averaging 32 

242  Shrops,  averaging 44 

From  this  time  on  all  the  lambs  had  all  the  alfalfa  hay 
they  could  eat;  and  commending  with  a  very  light  feed  of 
grain,  the  grain  feed  was  gradually  increased,  so  that  by 
January  the  three  pens  of  large  lambs  were  eating  4-5ths  of 
a  pound  per  head  per  day,  with  the  smaller  lambs  fed  not 
quite  so  much.  By  Feb.  1st  the  grain  ration  had  been 
increased,  to  about  an  average  per  day  per  head  of  1  3-10 
Ibs.  for  the  top  Shrops,  1  2-10  Ibs.  for  top  Merinos  and  Mexi- 
cans, and  1  1-10  Ibs.  for  each  of  the  two  lots  of  smaller 
lambs.  And  by  March,  the  feed  was  raised  to  1  6-10  Ibs.  for 
top  Shrops,  1  3-10  Ibs.  for  top  Merinos  and  Mexicans,  and 
1  2-10  Ibs.  for  each  of  the  smaller  lots.  This  last  amount  of 
grain  was  the  ration  fed  until  the  lambs  were  marketed. 
Through  the  whole  feeding  they  had  their  grain  three  times 
per  day;  and  the  grain  was  coi'n  morning  and  evening,  with 
oats  at  noon,  until  Feb.  llth,  after  which  it  was  corn  three 
times  per  day. 

From  Dec.  3d  to  Jan.  4th,  the  Mexicans  gained  an  aver- 
age of  8  1-10  Ibs.,  the  top  Merinos  8  5-10,  the  Shrops  8  8-10, 
and  the  second  Merinos  and  mixed  lot  each  7  1-10  Ibs.  The 
gain  from  this  date  to  Feb.  2d,  was:  Mexicans,  8  2-10  Ibs.; 
top  Merinos,  7  6-10;  top  Shrops,  9  6-10;  2d  Merinos,  8;  and 
mixed  lot,  9  Ibs.  Feb.  2  to  March  3d  the  gain  was:  Top 
Mexicans,  7  5-10  Ibs.;  top  Merinos,  9  3-10;  top  Shrops,  13 
9-10;  2d  Merinos,  8  8-10;  and  mixed  lot,  9  1-10  Ibs.  The  next 
weighing  was  April  1st,  which  was  just  following  several 
days  of  stormy,  wet,  bad  weather,  and  shows  a  less  gain: 
Top  Mexicans,  7  7-10  Ibs.;  top  Merinos,  7  6-10;  top  Shrops, 
8  3-10;  2d  Merinos,  7  5-10;  and  mixed  lot,  7  2-10  Ibs.  This  marie 
a  gain  of  from  32  4-10  for  the  second  Merinos  to  40  6-10  for  the 
top  Shrops  from  Dec.  3d  to  April  1st— an  average  net  gain, 
for  the  whole  lot  fed,  of  33  4-10  Ibs.  Of  the  Shrops,  558 
were  sold  in  Chicago,  April  14th,  421  of  which  aver- 
aged 97  Ibs.  and  sold  at  $6.10,  while  137  averaged  86 
Ibs.  and  sold  at  $6—  this  being  15  cents  above  the  price  paid 


174  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

for  any  Mexicans  that  day.  The  mixed  lot  was  sold  ill  Chi- 
cago  April  26th,  when  the  balance  of  the  Shrops  and  the 
small  end  of  the  Mexicans  were  sold  separately,  both  bring- 
ing ten  cents  below  the  top  price  paid  for  Mexican  lambs 
that  day,  while  the  extreme  small  end  of  the  Merinos  sold 
very  considerably  below.  April  27th,  the  second  Merinos 
were  sold  at  20  cents  below  the  top  price  for  lambs  that  day. 

The  top  Mexicans  and  top  Merinos  were  fed  until  May 
15th,  to  which  date  from  the  first  of  April  both  lots  made 
an  average  net  gain  per  head  of  2-10  Ib.  per  day.  The  Meri- 
nos were  sold  in  South  Omaha,  April  17th,  weighing  there  an 
average  of  89  Ibs.,  and  bringing  a  higher  price  than  had 
been  paid  for  lambs  in  that  market  before  that  day.  The 
Mexicans  were  taken  on  to  Chicago,  but  would  have  sold 
in  South  Omaha  at  10  cents  higher  than  the  Merinos  did  the 
same  day.  The  Mexicans  were  sold  in  Chicago,  May  20th, 
averaging  89  Ibs.,  bringing  22 J/L>  cents  below  the  extreme 
top  price  of  the  day,  principally  on  account  of  their  heavy 
weight. 

The  average  shrink  of  whole  lot  marketed  from  home 
weights  was  a  trifle  under  six  pounds.  In  my  experiment, 
the  Shrops  made  the  greatest  gain  of  all,  while  the  Delaine 
Merinos  kept  fully  up  to  the  Mexicans,  with,  as  near  as  it 
was  possible,  the  same  feed  and  care." 

One  point  of  interest  in  this  record  should  not  be  missed. 
This  is  that  these  lambs  were  cross-breds,  and  as  a  rule  it 
has  been  found  that  by  making  the  right  cross  a  considerable 
gain  may  be  made  over  that  usual  in  the  ewes  used  for  the 
cross.  The  choice  of  the  rams  for  the  crossing  on  the  ewes 
is  therefore  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  feeding  of 
lambs. 

EXPERIMENTS  IN   FEEDING   LAMBS. 

Some  interesting  experiments  made  in  England  in  feed- 
ing lambs  may  be  noticed.  Eight  lambs  were  put  in  each  of 
eleven  lots,  and  fed  as  here  described,  making  the  gain  set 
against  each  lot. 

Lot  1.  Consumed  231/*  Ibs.  of  turnips  per  day,  and 
gained  in  fifteen  weeks  251/{>  Ibs.  each. 

Lot  2.  Put  on  grass  and  fed  Ibs.  of  turnips  a  day, 
gained  in  the  same  time  26%  Ibs.  each. 


POSSIBLE  GAIN  IN   A   YEAR'S  GROWTH.  175 

Lot.  3.  Put  by  side  of  lot  2,  and  were  shut  up  at  night. 
Fed  half  a  pound  of  mixed  linseed  oil-meal  and  peas,  daily, 
ate  in  addition  201/L>  Ibs.  of  turnips.  Gain  33%  Ibs.  each. 

Lot  4.  Put  on  grass  and  fed  one  pound  of  mixed  oats, 
barley,  and  beans  daily.  In  ten  weeks  ate  20  Ibs.  of  turnips 
daily,  and  gained  2ti1/>  Ibs.  average. 

Lot  5.  Put  in  a  sheltered  paddock  (a  small  grass  lot) 
and  shut  up  in  a  shed  18  hours  in  the  24.  Fed  I1/!  Ibs. 
of  the  mixed  grain  a  day,  with  18%  Ibs.  of  turnips  daily. 
Gain  in  ten  weeks,  33%  Ibs.  each. 

Lot  6.  The  same  number  of  lambs  were  put  in  an  open 
grass  lot,  fed  one  pound  of  the  mixed  grain  daily,  with  24 
Ibs.  of  Swede  turnips.  (Tain  in  eight  weeks.  21%  Ibs.  each. 

Lot  8.  The  same  number  of  lambs  put  in  a  similar  pad- 
dock, witli  an  open  shed  in  it,  and  were  shut  up  at  night. 
Fed  the  same  feed  of  grain  with  lot  7,  ate  20%  Ibs.  of 
turnips.  Gain  in  eight  weeks,  24  Ibs.  each. 

The  principal  item  of  interest  in  these  tests  i~  the 
effect  of  shelter  on  the  lambs.  This  goes  to  prove  the  state- 
ment made  in  a  ^previous  chapter,  to  the  effect  that  warmth 
saves  food,  or  its  equivalent  that  the  same  food,  or  even  less, 
will  make  more  gain  in  weight. 

POSSIBLE   GAIN   IN   A   YEAR'S   GROWTH. 

An  essay  contributed  to  the  volume  of  the  proceedings 
of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  gives  the  fol- 
lowing statement  of  the  growth  of  lambs  during  a  series  of 
years  in  the  months  of  a  whole  year  from  the  w^eaning  of 
the  lambs. 

AVERAGE   GROWTH   FOR   EACH   LAMB. 

April 9  pounds. 

May 16 

June 18 

July  15 

August 12 

September 12 

October 12 

November 8 

December 6 

January 5 

February 7 

March 10 

Total  gain  for  the  year  130  Ibs.  live  weight,  for  the  aver- 
age of  the  flock. 

It  is  a  fact  that  lambs  in  confinement,  and  restless  under 
the  restraint,  never  make  as  much  growth  as  those  that  are 


176  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

contented.  Thus  it  is  always  desirable  to  this  end  to  have 
a  few  dry  ewes  run  with  the  lambs  for  company,  when  feed- 
ing, the  more  so,  as  the  time  of  separation  from  their  dams 
is  short. 

Other  experiments  in  feeding  lambs  go  to  show  that  the 
selection  of  foods  is  a  most  important  point.  As  for  instance, 
an  equal  number  of  ewes  and  lambs  were  selected  as  of 
even  weights,  and  quality,  at  the  start.  One  lot  was  folded 
on  clover,  the  latter  part  of  May,  and  given  in  addition  cut 
mangels  and  a  small  quantity  of  cut  clover  hay  with  the 
cut  roots.  The  lambs  had  the  run  of  a  good  clover  field 
which  they  reached  through  the  hurdles  by  which  the  ewes 
were  fenced  off.  The  second  lot  ran  at  large  on  a  white 
clover  pasture  and  their  lambs  run  on  good  red  clover.  All 
the  lambs  had  a  handful  of  peas  once  a  day.  In  28  days 
the  lambs  of  the  ewes  fed  on  the  mangels  gained  21  Ibs.; 
the  other  lot  gained  18  Ibs.  This  gain  of  21  pounds  in  28 
days  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  successful  feeding,  and  a 
great  recommendation  of  the  root  feeding.  Mangels  contain 
a  large  proportion  of  sugar,  and  are  very  productive  of  milk 
in  both  ewes  and  cows. 

When  confinement  appears  irksome,  something  should 
be  done  to  alleviate  the  dissatisfaction  of  sheep,  whether 
young  or  old.  Here  is  an  instance  of  the  result  of  dis- 
liked confinement.  An  equal  number  of  good  lambs  were 
put  into  a  field  of  turnips,  and  ifnclosed  in  movable  hur- 
dles. The  same  number  of  lambs  of  equal  weight  amd 
age  were  put  into  a  yard  with  warm  shed  attached  to  it, 
and  fed  with  roots  from  the  field,  and  a  liberal  quantity 
of  grain.  In  eight  weeks  the  lambs  were  weighed  and  the 
lot  outside  in  the  field  had  gained  an  average  of  13  Ibs.;  the 
other  lot  gained  only  3  Ibs.  each.  This  flock  was  conspicu- 
ously restless,  jumping  the  fence  at  every  opportunity. 
It  is  an  example  of  the  adage  "a  contented  mind  i^  a  con- 
tinual feast,"  and  the  shepherd,  knowing  how  it  is  himself, 
will  take  care  to  apply  it  to  his  flock.  If  the  sheep  desire 
to  stay  out  of  a  protecting  shed,  and  are  happy  in  their 
choice,  it  is  wise  in  the  shepherd  to  let  them  have  their 
way,  unless  it  is  clearly  against  the  safety  of  the  sheep. 
These— sometimes  called— foolish  animals  know  generally 
enough  to  get  in  out  of  the  rain  when  they  so  desire. 


WINTER  FEEDING  FOR  WOOL.  •     177 

In  feeding  roots  to  sheep,  in  any  ease,  it  is  wise  in  our 
estimation,  to  stop  at  ten  pounds  a  day,  for  a  lainb  under 
seventy  pounds  live  weight,  and  less  in  proportion  as  the 
age  is  less.  It  must  be  remembered  the  English  lambs 
are  to  the  manor  born,  as  regards  the  feeding  of  roots, 
and  inheritance  unquestionably  determines  the  nature  of  a 
lamb  in  this,  as  in  other  respects.  So  that  the  American 
shepherd  who  thinks  of  introducing  root  feeding  on  the 
English  system  (and  this  should  only  be  in  the  absence 
of  freezing  weather),  will  be  wise  to  go  slow  at  first,  feed- 
ing his  way  to  the  safe  end,  which  is  only  reached  by  ex- 
perience. This  is  always  applicable  to  special  circumstances, 
which,  we  have  learned,  alter  cases.  As  a  rule  the  Ger- 
man and  French  experiments  in  feeding  sheep  from  a 
scientific  standpoint,  as  from  results  gained  at  the  experi- 
ment stations,  have  never  been  so  successful  as  the  prac- 
tical feeding  on  the  common  farm  practices,  existing  for 
many  years,  and  learned  by  long  personal  experience,  and 
the  rules  laid  down  by  the  most  successful  feeders  and  scien- 
tific experimenters.  Something  of  this  may  be  reasonably 
attributed  to  the  moister  climate  of  England,  by  which  the 
nutritive  character  of  the  grass  and  other  feeding  crops  is 
improved,  over  and  above  those  of  the  drier  climate  of  Con- 
tinental Europe.  The  same  difference  will  doubtless  be 
found  applicable  on  our  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

WINTER  FEEDING  FOR  WOOL. 

This  is  pre-eminently  the  age  of  science.  In  every  part 
of  the  work  of  the  human  race,  among  whom  products  are 
cultivated  under  the  present  high  degree  of  competition  and 
consequent  necessary  cheapness,  the  science  of  every  art 
is  made  the  basis  of  practical  work.  This  applies  in  a  special 
way  to  the  feeding  of  animals  for  their  valuable  products 
as  it  is  applied  to  the  culture  of  every  farm  crop.  The  pre- 
cise composition  of  every  product  is  studied  out  by  the 
chemists,  and  their  directions  are  made  the  basis  of  all 
kinds  of  work,  in  every  department  of  human  industry. 
This  has  now  become  the  rule  and  it  is  indispensable 
that  all  concerned  should  live  up  to  it,  or  the  work 
cannot  be  made  profitable.  This  is  so  for  the 
simple  reason  that  economy  must  be  studied,  and  it 


178  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

is  essential  to  economy  that  no  more  material 
should  be  used  to  get  the  desired  product  of  it,  than  is 
actually  needed  for  it.  Otherwise  there  is  waste,  and  this 
is  just  so  much  loss.  The  result  of  all  this  is  that  in  the 
feeding  of  our  domestic  animals,  our  horses,  cows,  pigs, 
and  most  of  all,  sheep,  the  modern  principles  of  scientific 
feeding  is  the  rule  or  must  be  so  if  the  most  profit  is  to  be 
made. 

In  feeding  sheep  there  are  three  things  to  consider.  First, 
the  animal  itself  is  to  be  fed  on  the  best  kinds  of  food,  those 
by  which  the  animal  may  grow  in  the  best,  most  healthful 
and  cheapest  manner;  second,  those  by  which  the  best 
lamb  is  produced;  aaid  third,  by  which  the  most  and  the 
best  fleece  is  insured.  Let  us  consider  the  last  item  at  this 
time. 

Every  product  of  nature  is  made  up  of  certain  elementary 
substances,  and  these  are  to  be  considered  as  the  basis  and 
materials  for  the  special  product.  If  the  farmer  wants  to 
grow  wheat  or  potatoes,  or  other  crops,  he  studies  the  kind 
of  materials  which  the  soil  must  contain  for  the  best  product 
of  each  crop.  If  he  is  feeding  caws,  he  uses  the  best  foods 
for  making  the  most  and  richest  milk.  If  he  is  feeding 
beef  cattle,  he  uses  the  most  nutritious  foods  for  the  product 
of  flesh  and  fat;  and  if  he  is  feeding  sheep,  he  makes  use 
of  the  foods  that  make  the  most  growth  of  flesh  and  wool, 
for  wool  is  as  much  a  desirable  and  profitable  product  as 
the  mutton  is. 

Now  wool  is  a  specially  constituted  product,  and  its 
special  character  is  to  be  considered  in  the  feeding  of  the 
sheep.  It  is  made  up  of  much  the  same  elements  as  flesh 
or  skin  is.  But  at  this  time  it  is  only  necessary  to  notice 
two  of  these  special  elements,  and  these  are  the  nitrogen 
and  sulphur  which  wool  contains.  These  are  nearly  sixteen 
per  cent,  or  one-sixth,  of  nitrogen;  and  nearly  four  per  cent 
of  sulphur.  In  burning  wool  or  hair  we  experience  a  spe- 
cially strong  and  acrid  odor.  This  is  the  result  of  the  com- 
bustion of  the  sulphur,  and  the  strength  of  the  odor  shows 
the  considerable  quantity  of  this  element  in  the 
wool.  There  is  no  appreciable  difference  between  the 
wool  of  a  sheep  and  the  hair  of  an  amimal;  both  are  a  kind 
of  hair.  But  the  sheep  yields  a  much  greater  quantity  of 


WINTER  FEEDING  FOR  WOOL.  179 

wool  than  any  other  animal  does  of  hair.  Of  course  this 
greater  product  makes  it  necessary  that  the  sheep  be  sup- 
plied with  a  larger  allowance  of  these  food  elements  than 
other  animals,  just  in  proportion  as  the  fleece  is  greater 
in  weight.  But  there  is  another  thing  to  be  thought  of,  this 
is  the  fact  that  the  wool  is  naturally  supplied  with  a  greasy 
or  waxy  substance  which  is  known  as  the  yolk.  This  is  in- 
dispensable to  prevent  matting  and  entangling  or  felting  of 
the  wool  on  the  sheep's  back,  \vhich  would  completely  de- 
stroy the  value  of  the  fleece.  So  that  this  yolk  is  to  be  pro- 
vided for,  and  this  soapy  material  contains  a  large  quantity 
of  oil  and  potash  which  really  go  to  make  a  sort  of  soap. 
We  learn  this  fact  when  we  wash  a  sheep  before  shearing 
it.  And  of  course  these  materials  for  this  large  quantity 
of  yolk  must  be  supplied  in  the  food. 

Then  we  have  three  important  substances  to  supply  in 
the  sheep's  food  that  are  not  required  in  the  food  of  other 
animals.  It  follows  that  sheep  need  special  feeding  if  we 
should  have  the-most  profit  from  the  flock.  And  without 
going  into  further  particulars  on  this  point  we  may  say  that 
the  foods  best  suited  for  the  flock  are  those  in  which  these 
special  elements  are  supplied.  These  foods  are  clover  hay, 
rape,  turnips,  cabbages  (all  of  these  are  rich  in  sulphur), 
and  of  grains,  oats,  peas,  beans,  bran,  linseed  oil-meal  and. 
corn;  pea  and  bean  straw  may  be  included  in  the  rough  fod- 
ders. Alfalfa  will  take  the  place  of  clover,  but  the  common 
grasses  are  all  deficient  in  the  needed  special  elements  of 
the  sheep's  food.  Thus  it  is  necessary  for  the  shepherd  to 
feed  a  due  proportion  of  these  special  foods  in  regard  to 
their  effect  as  to  cheapness  as  compared  with  the  common 
grasses,  of  which  the  worst  of  all  for  a  flock  is  timothy. 
Orchard  grass  makes  one  of  the  best  pastures  after  clover, 
but  clover  is  pre-eminently  the  main  food  for  a  flock.  So  are 
the  roots  mentioned,  and  the  secret  of  success  in  feeding 
sheep  by  English,  French  and  German  shepherds,  lies  es- 
pecially in  the  roots  grown  for  this  purpose.  This  is  a  most 
important  point  to  consider  by  every  American  shepherd. 
The  repetition  of  this  remark  may  be  excused  as  coming 
from  many  years'  experience,  and  the  profound  conviction 
of  its  positive  necessity  for  full  success  with  a  flock.. 


180  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

SCIENTIFIC  EXPERIMENTS  IN  FEEDING  LAMBS 
FOR  MARKET. 

The  experiment  stations  nave  exhibited  considerable 
enterprise  in  originating  subjects  for  experiment,  and  care- 
ful and  accurate  study.  In  due  accordance  with  the 
newly  awakened  interest  in  the  rearing  and  feeding 
of  sheep  some  of  the  stations  have  instituted  a  careful  series 
of  experiments  in  feeding  sheep  for  market,  as  a  test,  not 
only  of  the  value  of  the  various  breeds,  but  of  the  various 
foods  and  general  management  during  a  lengthened  period 
of  fattening.  Of  these  we  feel  chiefly  interested  in  those 
undertaken  at  the  Iowa  Station  under  the  direction  and  per- 
sonal charge  of  Prof.  Curtiss,  and  those  made  at  the  Wis- 
consin Station  by  Prof.  Craig. 

At  the  outset  of  his  report  Prof.  Curtiss  calls  attention  to 
the  alleged  widely  established  but  erroneous  belief  that 
sheep  are  only  good  for  eating  weeds,  on  poor  worn  out 
lands,  and  that  for  this  use  they  may  be  made  profitable; 
while  it  is  equally— and  we  may  say  consequently— thought 
that  they  are  not  fitted  at  all  for  feeding  on  the  fertile  farms 
on  which,  in  fact  and  truth,  they  are  really  the  most  profita- 
ble stock  that  the  best  and  most  enterprising  farmers  can 
keep  for  making  their  well  cultivated  fields  more  and  more 
productive.  It  may  be  said  that  this — let  us  say  distinctly 
foolish  and  .ignorant— idea  has  never  been  encouraged  by 
those  persons  who  know  anything  whatever  about  sheep, 
and  the  special  requirements  of  them  for  the  very  best 
possible  keeping  in  every  way;  but  by  a  few  writers  who 
have  harped  on  this. subject  until,  as  the  proverb  goes,  "a  lie 
often  told  is  apt  to  be  taken  for  the  truth."  It  is  quite  true 
that  any  competent  farmer,  or  shepherd,  well  acquainted 
and  experienced  with  sheep,  may  take  a  poor  farm  and  in 
a  short  time,  by  the  aid  of  a  flock,  bring  the  land  into  a 
greatly  improved  condition,  and  in  due  time  make  it  profita- 
ble so  that  it  will  yield  satisfactory  crops  of  grain  or  grass, 
and  this  at  very  little  cost,  and  sometimes  without  loss 
from  the  start.  But  the  belief  that  any  man  may  keep 
a  flock  profitably  on  weeds,  or  on  fields  bare  of  good  grass, 
should  be  discouraged  by  all  concerned  in  advancing  the  in- 
terests of  the  flocks. 


SCIENTIFIC  EXPERIMENTS  IN   FEEDING.  181 

Doubtless  some  of  the  failures  that  have  beeii  made — 
and  which  have  led  the  disappointed  persons  to  feel,  as  it  is 
said  the  noted  Mr.  Randolph  of  Virginia  did,  when  he  said 
that  he  would  go  a  long  way  to  kick  a  sheep— have  had  their 
origin  in  attempts  made  to  keep  sheep  that  have  been 
originated  and.  encouraged  by  this  common  assertion  as  to 
the  special  adaptability  of  poor  impoverished  lands  to  the 
.business  of  rearing  sheep,  but  have  failed  disastrously. 

In  this  experiment  the  lambs  were  procured  from  the 
very  best  sources,  and  while  the  Canadian  breeders  are  to 
be  complimented  on  the  fact  that  their  flocks  were  chiefly 
selected  as  the  best  sources  from  which  to  procure  entirely 
satisfactory  lambs  for  the  tests,  yet  it  should  be  thought 
by  the  breeders  of  the  United  States,  as  somewhat  of  a  re- 
flection on  their  enterprise  and  business  test,  that  a  sufficient 
•number  of  good  lambs  could  not  be  procured  to  supply  ma- 
terial for  such  an  important  scientific  experiment  as  this. 
The  best  specimens  of  each  breed  were  very  carefully  se- 
lected, and  as  soon  as  the  lambs  arrived  they  were  dipped, 
and  during  the  month  of  August  they  pastured  in  a  large 
meadow  of  timothy  and  blue  grass,  having  a  good  after- 
math. 

As  a  preliminary  the  lambs  were  treated  with  turpentine 
and  worm  powders-  in  the  usual  manner,  not  so  much  as  a 
remedy  for  any  existing  disease,  but  as  a  preventive  and  to 
insure  the  absence  of  anything  that  might  interfere  with  the 
successful  issue  of  the  experiments.  It  is  well  to  know  that 
every  needed  preliminary  precaution  to  insure  success  was 
taken,  so  that  the  comparative  results  given  may  be  received 
with  certainty.  It  is  unnecessary  to  give  in  full  detail  the 
whole  of  the  arrangements  made  for  the  feeding  of  the 
lambs,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say  that  every  precaution 
was  taken  to  prepare  the  lambs  in  the  best  manner  for  the 
tests,  and  to  carry  these  out  with  true  scientific  exactness. 
The  lambs  were  gradually  led  up  to  the  full  feeding  with 
every  caution,  during  a  preliminary  period  of  two  months. 
It  is  to  be  considered  in  such  an  experiment  as  this,  'in 
which  the  lambs  were  frequently  weighed  and  subjected 
to  disturbances  that  must  necessarily  interfere  with  the 
growth— for  no  other  animal  is  so  easily  disturbed  in  this 
way  as  a  sheep— that  there  will  be  some  allowance  to  be 


182 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


made,  which  otherwise  would  have  added  somewhat  to  the 
credit  of  the  animals  subjected  to  these  experiments.  So 
that  this  must  be  taken  into  account  as  actually  going  to 
lessen  the  results  of  the  experiments  and  leaving  something, 
at  least,  to  be  really  added  to  the  credit  of  the  lambs. 

The  figures  relating  to  the  final  result  of  the  experiments 
are  given  as  follows,  each  breed  being  noted  separately: 


SOUTHDOWNS. 

1st  Expt.  3d  Expt 

Average  age  of  lambs 374  days  280  days 

Average  weight (March 31,  shorn). .  .125      Ibs.  (Jan.  1)  102.4  Ibs 

Average  gain  per  day  during  the  experiment. . .      .45 Ibs.  .35  Ibs 

Average  dry  matter  per  pound  of  gain 7.381bs.  989  Ibs 

Average  cost  of  feed  per  pound  of  gain 2.93  cts.  3. 12  cts 

Selling  price  on  Chicago  market $4.75  $5.75 

A  verage  per  cent  of  dressed  mutton 55.4  55.26 

Average  weight  of  fleece 6.75  Ibs  4.59  Ibs 

Average  age  of  fleece 366  days  289  days 

Average  value  of  fleece 75  cts.  64  cts 

Average  yearly  weight  of  fleece 6.75  Ibs.  5.79  Ibs 

Average  yearly  value  of  fleece 75  cts.  81  cts 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  natural  condition.       11*4  cts.  14  cts 

Average  shrinkage  in  scouring 54ftf  per  cent 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  scoured  condition .       26  cts. 

1st  Expt.  2d  Expt 

Average  age  of  lambs 371  days  279  days 

Average  weight (March  31,  shorn )  . .  135      Ibs.  (Jan.  1)  126   Ibs 

Average  gain  per  day  during  the  experiment. . .      .48  Ibs.  .36  Ibs 

Average  dry  matter  per  pound  of  gain 7. 18  Ibs.  10.26  Ibs 

Average  C9st  of  feed  per  pound  of  gain 2.88  cts.  3.21  cts 

Selling  price  on  Chicago  market $4.62  $5.60 

Average  per  cent  of  dressed  mutton 56.3  52.88 

Average  weight  of  fleece 8. 75  Ibs.  7.83  Ibs 

Average  age  of  fleece 366  days  279  days 

Average  value  of  fleece 98  cts.  $1.10 

Average  yearly  weight  of  fleece 8.75  Ibs.  10.22  Ibs 

Average  yearly  value  of  fleece 98  cts.  $1.44 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  natural  condition..        11  cts.  14  cts 

Average  shrinkage  in  scouring 56J4  per  cent 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  scoured  condition.        25  cts. 

OXFORDS. 

1st  Expt.  2d  Expt 

Average  age  of  lambs  374  days  279  days 

Average  weight (March  31,  shorn) . . .  155      Ibs.  (Jan.  1)  136.7  Ibs 

Average  gain  per  day  during  the  experiment . . .      .52  Ibs.  .40  Ibs 

Average  dry  matter  per  pound  gain 7.40  Ibs.  10.31  Ibs 

A  verage  cost  of  feed  per  pound  of  gain 3.03  cts.  3.22  cts 

Selling  price  on  Chicago  market $4.50  $5.40 

Average  per  cent  of  dressed  mutton 55.2  50.08 

Average  weight  of  fleece 10.95  Ibs.  8.03  Ibs 

Average  age  of  fleece 365  days  279  days 

Average  value  of  fleece $1.44  $1.16 

Average  yearly  weight  of  fleece 10.C51bs.  9.38  Ibs 

Average  yearly  value  of  fleece $1 .44  $1.51 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  natural  condition.    12%  cts.  Ul/2  cts 

Average  shrinkage  in  scouring 47  per  cent 

Value  of  wool  pev  pound  in  scoured  condition .       24  cts. 


SCIENTIFIC  EXPERIMENTS  IN  FEEDING.  183 


SUFFOLKS. 

1st  Expt.  2d  Expt 

Average  age  of  lambs 394  days  285  days 

Average  weight (March  31,  shorn)  ...  159      Ibs.  (Jan.  1)  134.4  Ibs 

Average  gain  per  day  during  the  experiment ...      .55  Ibs.  .40  Ibs 

Average  dry  matter  per  pound  of  gain 7.40  Ibs.  10.36  Ibs 

Average  cost  of  feed  per  pound  of  gain 2.95  cts.  3.44  cts 

Selling  price  on  Chicago  market $4.25  $5.00 

Average  per  cent  of  dressed  mutton 53.6  52.54 

Average  weight  of  fleece 7.65  Ibs.  5.20  Ibs 

Average  age  of  fleece 383  days  285  days 

Average  value  of  fleece $0.86  $0.75 

Average  yearly  weight  of  fleece 7.29  Ibs.  6.64  ibs 

A  verage  >  early  value  of  fleece $0.82  $0.95 

Value  of 'wool  per  pound  in  natural  condition..       11  cts  14%  cts 

Average  shrinkage  in  scouring 54^  per  cent 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  scoured  condition. .       24  cts. 

LINCOLNS. 

Average  age  of  lambs 345  days  291  days 

Average  weight (March  31  shorn) ...  158      Ibs.  (Jan.  1)  143.5  Ibs 

Average  gain  per  day  during  the  experiment. . .      .55  Ibs.  .46  Ibs 

Average  dry  matter  per  pound  of  gain 7.29  Ibs.  9.1   Ibs 

Average  cost  of  feed  per  pound  of  gain 2.89  cts.  2.86  cts 

Selling  price  on  the  Chicago  market $4.50  $5.25 

Average  per  cent  of  dressed  mutton 55.7  5i  .08 

Average  weight  of  fleece  ....- 12.85  Ibs.  10.4  Ibs 

Average  age  of  fleece 332  days  291  days 

Average  value  of  fleece $1.79  $1.56 

Average  yearly  weight  of  fleece 14.13  Ibs.  13.03  Ibs 

Average  yearly  value  of  fleece $1.96  $1.95 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  natural  condition..    13%  cts.  15  cts 

Average  shrinkage  in  scouring 40  per  cent 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  scoured  condition. .       23  cts. 

LEICESTEBS. 

Average  age  of  lambs 347  days  268  days 

Average  weight (March  31 ,  shorn)  ...  161      Ibs.  (Jan.  1)  138.4  Ibs 

Average  gain  per  day  during  the  experiment. . .      .62  Ibs.  .50  Ibs 

Average  dry  matter  per  pound  of  gain 6.53  Ibs.  8.48  Ibs 

Average  cost  of  feed  per  pound  of  gain 2.60  cts.  2.65  cts 

Selling  price  on  Chicago  market  $4.50  cts.  $5.25  cts 

Average  per  cent  of  dressed  mutton 54.9  53.57 

Average  weight  of  fleece 12.65  Ibs.  9.8  Ibs 

Average  age  of  fleece 334  days  268  days 

Average  value  of  fleece $1.66  $1.46 

Average  yearly  weight  of  fleece 13.82  Ibs.  13.32  Ibs 

Average  yearly  value  of  fleece $1.81  $1.98 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  natural  condition. .       13  cts.  15  cts 

Average'shrinkage  in  scouring 43^  per  cent 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  scoured  condition. .       23  cts. 

COTSWOLDS. 

Average  age  of  lambs 362  days  277  days 

Average  weight (March  31, shorn).  ..167      Ibs.  (Jan.  1)  133  Ibs 

Average  gain  per  day  during  the  experiment. ..      .52  Ib.  .44  Ib 

Average  dry  matter  per  pound  of  gain 7.49  Ibs.  9.34  Ibs 

Average  cost  of  feed  per  pound  of  gain 2.93  cts.  2.93  cts 

Selling  price  on  Chicago  market $4.50  cts.  $5.25  cts 

Average  per  cent  of  dressed  mutton 57.8  51.87 

Average  weight  of  fleece 11.55  Ibs.  8.9  Ibs 

Average  age  of  fleece 348  days  277  days 

Average  value  of  fleece $1.76  $1.33 

Average  yearly  weight  of  fleece 12.11  Ibs.  11.71  Ibs 

Average  yearly  Value  of  fleece $1.85  $1.71 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  natural  condition. .    14%  cts.  15  cts 

Average  shrinkage  in  scouring 3S1A  per  cent 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  scoured  condition. .       24  cts. 


184 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


DOR8ET8. 

1st  Kxpt.  2d  Expt 

Average  age  of  lambs 367  days  277  days 

Average  weight (March  31,  shorn)  ..  .138      Ibs.  (Jan.  1)  1:28.8  11  >s 

Average  gain  per  day  during  the  experiment. . .  .48  Ib.  .43   Ib 

Average  dry  matter  per  pound  of  gain 7.85  Ibs.  9.89  Ibs 

Average  cost  of  feed  per  pound  of  gain 3.05  cts.  3.04  cts 

Selling  price  on  Chicago  market $3.75  $5.50 

Average  per  cent  dressed  mutton 52.6  54.11 

Average  weight  of  fleece 6.83  Ibs.  5.97  Ibs 

Average  age  of  fleece 355  days  277  days 

Average  value  of  fleece $0.77  $0.83 

A  verage  yearly  weight  of  fleece 7.2  Ibs.  7.84  Ibs 

Average  yearly  value  of  fleece $0.79  $1.09 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  natural  condition. .  10%  cts.  14  cts 

Average  shrinkage  in  scouring 55  per  cent 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  scoured  condition. .  24  cts. 

BAMBOUILLETS. 

Average  age  of  lambs 362  days  255  days 

Average  weight (March  31,  shorn) ...  99      Ibs.  (Jan.  1)  113.3  Ibs 

Average  gain  per  day  during  the  experiment. . .      .29   Ib.  .37   Ib 

Average  dry  matter  per  pound  of  gain 9.35  Ibs.  10.29  Ibs 

Average  cost  of  feed  per  pound  gain 3.78  cts.  2.91  cts 

Selling  price  on  Chicago  market $4.25  $5.00 

Average  per  cent  of  dressed  mutton 51.8  49.57 

Average  weight  of  fleece 9.9  Ibs.  6.60  Ibs 

Average  age  of  fleece 359  days  255  days 

Average  value  of  fleece $1.00  $0.73 

Average  yearly  weight  of  fleece 10.07  Ibs.  9.42  Ibs 

Average  yearly  value  of  fleece $1.02  $1.04 

Value  of  wocfcl  per  pound  in  natural  condition. .      9%  cts.  11  cts 

Average  shrinkage  in  scouring 67*4  per  cent 

Value  of  wool  per  pound  in  scoured  condition. .       30  cts. 

These  figures  deserve  careful  study,  as  an  example  of  the 
results  of  good  feeding,  and  the  profit  of  it  when  done  under 
the  best  methods.  The  feeds  given  to  these  lambs  were  as 
follows.  For  the  first  fifteen  days  the  ration  was  made 
up  of: 

50  Ibs.  bran Cost,  40  cents  per  100  Ibs. 

100  Ibs.  oats "     40     "  " 

100  Ibs.  shelled  corn "     28.5." 

After  this  time  the  following  ration  was  fed: 

25  Ibs.  of  oil  meal Cost,  90  cents  per  100  Ibs.  • 

50  Ibs.  of  bran "     40     " 

200  Ibs.  of  oats "     40     "  " 

200  Ibs.  of  shelled  corn "     20     " 

Towards  the  close  of  the  feeding  period,  ten  pounds  more 
of  oil  meal  was  added  to  the  ration,  and  continued  to  the 
end.  Each  lamb  was  fed  as  much  as  it  would  eat,  and  some 
roots  and  hay  in  addition.  The  hay  cost  28  cents  per  100 
Ibs.  and  the  roots  5  cents. 

The  whole  number  of  lambs,  109  in  the  first  experiment 
and  91  in  the  second,  not  including  the  ewes,  made  a  total 
gain  of  8,24G  pounds  from  69,134  pounds  (dry  matter)  of 
feed— a  rate  of  one  pound  of  gain  for  8.38  pounds  of  dry 


186 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


matter  in  the  feed  consumed  and  an  average  of  .448  pounds 
per  head  daily  for  the  entire  lot.  The  total  gain  of  8,246 
pounds  was  made  at  a  cost  of  $245.69  for  feed  consumed, 
or  an  average  cost  of  2.97  cents  per  pound  for  the  mutton 
produced  in  both  experiments.  This  calculation  makes  no 
allowance  for  the  value  of  the  fleece,  except  as  it  entered 
into  the  gain,  nor  does  it  take  into  account  the  value  of  the 
manure  or  expense  of  labor  in  feeding. 

The  marketing  of  these  lambs  is  a  matter  of  interest  as  it 
goes  to  show  what  sort  of  figure  the  most  profitable  kind  of 
sheep  should  possess,  and  gives  a  very  good  idea  of  what 
should  be  the  aim  of  the  breeder  in  the  improvement  of  his 
flock,  and  the  kind  of  rams — the  form  of  them  especially — 


DRESSED  CARCASS  OF  LAMB. 

to  be  chosen  for  this  purpose.  The  above  drawing  shows 
the  carcass  of  one  of  these  lambs  denuded  only  of  the  head. 
The  next  table  below  gives  the  market  values  of  each  of 
these  parts  of  the  carcass  to  the  butcher. 


Two  pair  legs  
Two  ri^s 

BLOCK  TEST. 

80UTHDOWNS. 

Weight.    Per  cent.    Price.    , 
40             29.85           10 
34             25  37             9 

\mount. 
$  4  00 
3  06 

25              1866              9 

2  ?5 

Two  chucks    

35              26.12              2 

70 

Total  of  two  lambs.  .  .134 


100. 


8HROPSHIRE8. 

Two  pair  legs  ...........  32  29.56 

Two  ribs  ...............  26  2385 

Two  loins  ..............  21  19.26 

Two  chucks  ............  30  27.33 


10  01 


3  20 

234 

1  89 

60 


Total  of  two  lambs.  .  .  109 


100. 


Two  pair  legs  ...........  51  31.87 

Two  ribs  ...............  37  23.12 

Two  loins  ..............  30  18.75 

Two  chucks  ............  42  26.26 

Total  of  two  lambs.  .  .  160  100. 


459 
296 
2  40 

84 

10  79 


SCIENTIFIC  EXPERIMENTS  IN  FEEDING.  187 


Weight.  Percent.  Price.  Amount. 

Two  pair  legs 47             29.19             9  $423 

Two  ribs 37             22.98             8  2  96 

Two  loins 33             20.50             8  264 

Two  chucks 44             27.33             2  88 


Total  of  two  lambs. . .  161          100.  10  71 

LINCOLNS. 

Two  pair  legs 45            30.61  9  4  05 

Two  ribs 35             23.81  8  280 

Two  chucks 39             26.54  2  78 

Two  loins 28             19.04  8  2  24 


Total  of  fwo  lambs. . .  147          100.  9  87 

LEICE8TER8. 

Two  pair  legs 48            29.09  9  4  32 

Two  ribs 38             23.03  8  3  04 

Two  loins 35             21.21  8  2  80 

Two  chucks 44             26.67  2  88 


Total  of  two  lambs. . .  165          100.  11  04 

COT8WOLDS. 

Two  pair  legs 48             30.19  9  432 

Two  ribs 38             23.90  8  3  04 

Two  loins 30             18.87  8  240 

Two  chucks 43             27.04  2  86 


Total  of  two  lambs. .  .159  100.  10  62 

DOKSETS. 

Two  pair  legs 41  30.15  8              328 

Two  ribs 33  24.26  7^           2  47 

Two  loins 25  18.38  7J4            188 

Two  chucks 37  27.21  2                  74 

Total  of  two  lambs. . .  136  100.  8  37 


Two  pair  legs 30  29.41  9  270 

Two  ribs 22  21.57  8  176 

Two  loins 22  21.57  8  1  76 

Two  Chucks 28  27.45  2  56 


Total  of  two  lambs. . .  102          100.  6  78 

The  form  and  figure  of  any  animal  to  be  fed  for  profit 
have  always  been  a  matter  of  primary  importance  to  the 
feeder.  We  are  always  to  think  of  the  ancient  wise  man's 
remark  that  the  feeding  of  animals  is  the  most  important 
part  of  agriculture.  It  is  so  in  two  ways.  First  the  profit 
to  be  made  from  the  feeding,  and  second,  the  manure  left 
by  which  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  in  producing  the  crops 
by  which  the  animals  are  fed,  is  repaired.  And  so  it  is 
that  the  feeder  of  sheep  must  study  the  form  of  the 


188  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

most  profitable  animals  in  the  way  of  feeding  for  profit. 
A  careful  study  of  the  figures  above  given  will  help  very  much 
in  the  choice  of  the  stock  the  feeder  thinks  of  expending  his 
fodder  and  grain  upon.  It  is  equally  a  matter  for  study  by 
the  breeder,  who  works  for  the  feeder,  and  of  course  must 
supply  him  with  such  animals  as  will  have  the  most  profit 
in  them  for  him.  The  waste  parts  of  an  animal  of  course 
go  for  nothing,  but  yet  they  consume  as  much  food,  pound 
for  pound  of  live  weight,  as  the  most  valuable,  and  so  it  is 
that  the  carcass  which  has  the  most  weight  of  the  most 
valuable  parts  to  the  consumer,  wrill  be  the  most  profitable 
to  feed.  In  the  sheep,  we  want  the  broad  back  with  the 
full  loins,  the  full  ribs  and  deep  shoulders;  but  the  short 
neck  and  legs,  which  only  give  weight  of  the  least  useful 
and  valuable  parts  of  a  carcass.  So  too  we  want  the  least 
possible  offal  inside. 

Thus  the  figure  of  the  carcass  of  the  lamb  given  before 
will  furnish  excellent  hints  to  the  breeder  for  the  production 
of  the  right  kind  of  a  carcass  needed  by  the  feeders,  and 
these  will  learn  from  it  how  to  choose  those  animals  of 
which  they  may  make  the  most  profit  by  feeding  for  valua- 
ble meat,  and  not  for  mere  bone  and  undesirable  flesh.  So, 
too,  the  table  following,  in  which  is  given  the  several 
proportions  of  the  meat  and  the  offal  of  the  carcass  of  each 
of  the  breeds  named,  will  furnish  very  profitable  material 
from  the  point  of  view  mentioned,  viz.,  the  profit  of  the 
feeder,  and  through  him,  that  of  the  breeder,  who  must  ^f  or 
his  own  advantage  consult  the  interests  of  his  clients— the 
purchasers.  This  separation  of  interests  is  unavoidable; 
for  there  are  two  distinct  purposes  in  pursuits;  the  one  pro- 
viding for  the  other;  and  beJng  dependent  upon  him,  and  the 
other  looking  to  the  breeder  for  the  material  which  he  needs 
to  make  his  own  products  more  valuable.  We  think  this  separa- 
tion in  one  sense,  and  union  in  another,  of  the  two  interests, 
are  best  for  both,  giving  a  better  opportunity  for  two  heaxls 
to  work  together,  each  devoting  his  special  talents  and  op- 
portunities to  the  single  end  in  view. 

The  butcher's  block  is  the  final  test  of  all  and  is  the 
measure  of  value  of  the  product  of  the  skill  of  the  breeder 
and  the  feeder  as  well.  The  following  figures  afford  mate- 
rial for  painstaking  and  intelligent  study: 


H-  l_n_»OS^-         OS  N)         OS 


K-  *-  —i  OS  >-»        rf>.  OS        OS 


h*^t^)S      m>—  £  en  >—  *.  os«oos  osoo 


i_i  N_I  os  i-1      into      os 


tOOS«O?D 


^oso 


10  Southdown 

Lambs. 


10  Shropshire 

Lambs. 


10  Oxford  Lambs 


10  Suffolk  Lambs. 


10  Lincoln  Lambs, 


10  Cotswold 

Lambs. 


I_L  I_L       C0>-       0503       OS 


'''  'i' 


9  Leicester  Lambs. 


10  Crossbred 

Lambs. 


i—  H-  (—*.!—        OS  10 


>-"-'tO—       OS  JO       *.  tOOS 


10  Range  Lambs. 


5  Shropshire 

Yearlings. 


190  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

FEEDING  LAMBS  AT  THE  WISCONSIN  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

By  the  courtesy  of  the  Director  of  the  Wisconsin  Experi- 
ment Station,  Prof.  W.  A.  Henry,  we  have  the  opportunity 
of  studying  the  interesting  question,  whether  or  not  it  is 
profitable  to  feed  lambs  as  soon  after  birth,  and  while 
running  with  the  ewes,  as  may  be  possible,  with  a  suitable 
grain  ration.  From  the  experience  of  the  author  in  this  line, 
he  has  been  well  able  to  decide  this  matter  for  himself  in 
the  affirmative,  and  very  positively  so.  And  it  has  been  his 
practice  to  begin  feeding  the  lambs  as  soon  as  they  could  be 
induced  to  take  the  least,  mca-sel  of  suitable  grain  food 
from  the  hand.  And  right  at  this  point  it  is  very  desirable 
to  affirm  very  positively,  that  the  gentle  and  confiding  dispo- 
sition of  the  lambs,  and  their  gentleness  and  confidence  in 
the  feeder,  are  to  be  cultivated  and  encouraged,  if  the  best 
results  from  any  kind  of  feeding  that  may  be  adopted  are 
to  be  desired.  In  fact,  the  gentle  shepherd  who  carried  the 
lambs  in  his  bosom,  is  to  be  the  pattern,  rather  than  the 
one  who  roughly  treats  them,  and  who  is  feared  and 
avoided  by  them.  In  fact  we  feel  decidedly  free 
to  say  that  the  gentle  shepherd  only  will  be  able  to 
make  the  best  profit  from  the  feeding  of  lambs  or  sheep 
of  any  age.  So  that  to  begin  feeding  with  the  young  lambs, 
when  they  will  eat  a  little  bran  or  meat  from  the  shepherd's 
hand,  and  troop  after  him  in  the  liveliest  fashion  for  the 
sweet  morsel,  is  one  O'f  the  first  requisites  to  the  profitable 
feeding  during  the  period  of  nursing  on  their  dams. 

The  whole  story  of  the  feeding  is  too  long  for  our  space, 
.but  it  will  suffice  to  give  the  results  of  each  of  three  care- 
fully conducted  experiments.  There  were  three  periods  dur- 
ing which  these  trials  were  made.  The  first  from  the  first 
ability  to  eat  the  food  after  birth;  the  second  after  weaning; 
and  the  third  after  the  lambs  were  finally  fed  for  fattening 
for  market. 

The  result  of  the  first  test  was  that  thirty  lambs  Avere 
fed  1,353  Ibs.  of  grain  food,  consisting  of  corn  meal,  bran, 
oil  meal  (each  of  these  latter  two  about  one-half  in  amount 
of  the  corn  meal),  and  a  small  quantity  of  oats  too  small 
to  notice  in  any  way.  The  result  wras  that  one  pound  of  live 
weight  was  made  for  a  very  small  trifle  over  one  pound  of 
food  eaten,  or  from  1,353  Ibs.  of  food  1,226  Ibs.  of  live  weight 


SCIENTIFIC  EXPERIMENTS  IN  FEEDING.  191 

was  made.  After  having  been  weaned  this  lot  of  lanibs 
made  from  2,270  Ibs.  of  grain  food  667  Ibs.  of 'live  weight,  or 
one  pound  from  three  pounds  of  grain  eaten,  counting  good 
blue  grass  pasture  in.  During  the  final  feeding  of  these 
lambs  for  market,  an  average  of  4  Ibs.  of  grain,  2.75  Ibs.  of 
hay  and  one  pound  of  roots  were  required  to  make  one 
pound  of  live  weight.  Of  course  it  is  to  be  considered  that 
through  the  first  period  the  lambs  were  getting  the  ewes 
milk  which  accounts  for  the  small  amount  of  grain  food 
needed  for  each  pound  of  live  weight,  but  it  was  found  that 
the  effect  of  this  early  growth  was  to  considerably  increase 
the  product  of  growrth  in  the  later  periods,  In  proportion  to 
the  grain  food  consumed.  There  was  this  advantage  as 
well,  which  was,  that  being  used  to  the  grain  ration  the  in- 
crease of  this  during  the  fattening  period  was  not  accom- 
panied by  any  of  those  drawbacks  which  commonly  hap- 
pen when  lambs  unused  to  eating  grain,  are  put  on  grain 
feeding.  The  lambs  continued  growth,  without  any  draw- 
back, thus  repaid  in  this  way  to  some  extent  for  the  early 
feeding  of  the  grain.  This  experiment  continued  for  nine 
months.  At  the  end  of  it,  it  was  found  that  the  lambs  fed 
from  the  first  on  the  grain  ration  wrere  fit  for  sale,  and  had 
made  the  same  weight,  about  seven  weeks  before  others 
not  so  fed  were  fit  for  market.  Thus  the  feeding  for  these 
weeks  was  really  saved  by  the  early  feeding. 

In  estimating  the  results  at  the  final  disposal  of  these 
lambs,  it  was  found  that  those  that  were  fed  a  grain  ration 
from  birth  not  only  made  seventeen  pounds  per  head  for  the 
same  age,  more  than  the  others,  but  that  they  also  dressed 
a  slightly  higher  per  cent  in  weight. 

As  to  the  fleeces  of  these  lambs,  the  results  showed  that 
the  lot  fed  from  birth  yielded  an  average  of  one  pound  more 
wool  per  fleece  than  the  other  lambs,  but  this  advantage 
did  not  obtain  after  the  wool  was  thoroughly  washed,  so  as 
to  completely  remove  all  yolk  and  grease,  on  account  of  the 
greater  shrinkage  in  the  washing.  This  of  course  tends  to 
the  advantage  of  the  seller  of  the  wcol  in  the  grease.  The 
final  test  of  the  butcher's  block  showed  that  the  early  fed 
lambs  were  worth  about  one  cent  a  pound  more  than  the 
others,  and  on  selling  the  three  lots  the  first  brought  $5.69 
per  100  Ibs.,  the  second  and  third  lots,  $4.74  per  hundred. 


192  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

The  most  profit,  however,  was  made  from  these  lambs 
by  selling  at  weaning,  when  they  made  a  profit  of  68 
cents  per  head  over  that  made  from  those  which  did  not 
receive  any  grain.  There  is  also  a  profit  made  by  this 
early  feeding  when  tha  lambs  are  sold  all  together  in  the 
Fall,  as  shown  by  these  figures: 

Lot  1.  Lot  2.  Lot  3. 

Value  per  head $4.76  $3.78  $3.14 

Cost  per  head 1.12  .42  

Profit  per  head 3.64  336  2.14 

Thus  the  lambs  having  grain  food  from  birth  made  a 
profit  over  those  fed  only  from  weaning  of  28  cents,  and 
over  those  fed  only  while  fattening  of  52  cents  per  head; 
while  those  fed  from  weaning  made  a  profit  of  23  cents 
over  those  fed  grain  only  after  weaning  and  when  fed  for 
fattening.  It  was  not  found  that  the  previous  condition  of  the 
lambs  fed  from  birth,  had  any  result  good  or  bad  on  the 
final  fattening  of  themselves,  over  the  others,  except  so  far 
as  above  suggested  that  they  took  to  the  grain  food,  as  in- 
creased for  the  fattening,  without  any  delay  or  wraste  of 
time. 

VALUE  OF  DIFFERENT  GRAINS  FOR  FATTENING. 

Another  experiment  made  to  test  the  difference  in  the 
value  of  farm  grown  grains  for  fattening  lambs,  is  recorded 
in  the  same  report.  The  intention  of  these  experiments  was 
to  show  if  any  difference  in  cost  might  exist  in  the  use 
of  the  grain  foods  tested,  which  were  corn,  corn  and  oats, 
corn  and  peas,  and  corn,  peas  and  oats.  It  is  a  common 
belief  that  a  mixed  ration  may  be  fed  more  profitably  than 
any  single  one  of  the  grains.  This  is  not  proved,  however, 
by  these  results. 

THE  CONCLUSIONS  TO  BE  DRAWN 

From  these  experiments  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 
First— The  highest  rate  of  gain  for  any  period  was  made 

when  the  lambs  were  fed  grain  before  weaning. 

Second — The  rate  of  gain  in  the  second  period — that  is 

after  weaning— was  the  lowest  of  all  three  periods  in  the 

trial,  though  the  cost  of  the  gain  was  less  than  in  the  third 

or  fattening  period. 

Third— The   unlimited   supply   of   grain   after   weaning 

caused  the  lambs  to  consume  less  pasture.    A  half  pound  of 


SCIENTIFIC  EXPERIMENTS  IN  FEEDING,  193 

grain  per  day  per  bead  is  the  largest  allowance  consistent 
with  profit  at  this  period. 

Fourth— The  feeding  of  oats,  bran,  or  oil  meal  (linseed 
is  doubtless  referred  to)  mixed  with  corn  meal,  as  used  in 
these  tests,  before  and  after  weaning,  did  not  exert  any 
influence  upon  the  rate  or  cost  of  gain  made  during  the  three 
months  of  Winter  fattening  when  the  lambs  were  feeding 
for  the  early  Spring  market  (except  as  we  might  add,  in 
regard  to  the  earlier  maturity  mentioned). 

Fifth— The  continuous  grain  feeding  from  birth,  until 
the  lambs  were  ten  months  old,  did  not  produce  any  notable 
difference  in  the  carcasses  in  regard  to  the  proportions  of 
fat  and  lean,  or  the  distribution  of  the  fat. 

Sixth— The  continuous  grain  feeding  produced  some- 
what better  fleshed  carcasses,  as  was  shown  by  the  fact 
that  they  made  somewhat  higher  per  cents  of  dressed  weight 
as  compared  with  the  lambs  which  received  no  grain  before 
the  period  of  feeding  for  fattening. 

Seventh— The  continuously  grain  fed  lambs  from  birth, 
until  ten  months  old,  sheared  a  heavier  fleece  than  those  not 
receiving  any  grain  until  fed  for  final  fattening. 

Eighth— This  increased  weight  of  fleece,  however,  was 
due  more  to  the  large  propc<rtion  of  yolk  and  oil,  than  in  the 
fleeces  of  those  lambs  not  fed  grain,  until  the  third  or  fat- 
tening period. 

Ninth— The  continuous  grain  feeding  materially  in- 
fluenced the  early  maturity  of  the  lambs  to  the  extent  of 
seven  weeks  in  three  of  the  trials  and  four  wreeks  in  the 
other  two  trials. 

Tenth— The  results  show  that  it  pays  to  feed  grain  to 
lambs  before  weaning,  when  they  are  intended  for  sale  at, 
or  soon  after,  weaning. 

Eleventh— It  pays  to  feed  lambs  intended  to  be  sold  when 
seven  months  old  in  November,  with  grain  bo-th  before  and 
after  weaning. 

Twelfth— When  lambs  are  to  be  sold  at  the  age  of  ten 
months,  after  two  or  three  months  fattening,  during  the 
Winter,  grain  feeding,  before  feeding  for  fattening,  does  not 
seem  to  have  any  sensible  effect  on  the  profit  made  (except 
so  far  as  maturity  is  hastened). 

Thirteenth— Lambs   fed    continuously   from    birth    with 


194  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

grain,  are  fit  for  sale  at  any  time;  so  that  advantage  may 
be  taken  of  any  favorable  condition  of  the  market  that 
might  occur. 

Fourteenth — The  result  of  five  years  experimenting  in 
this  line,  shows  that  the  best  time  to  market  lambs  is  pre- 
vious to,  or  at  weaning  time,  and  to  fit  them  in  the  best 
manner  for  this  disposal  as  to  weight  and  condition,  they 
should  be  fed  grain  from  the  earliest  possible  period. 

VALUE  OF  FARM  GRAINS  FOR  FATTENING  LAMBS. 

An  experiment  as  to  the  value  of  farm  grown  grain 
crops  for  fattening  lambs  was  conducted  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Craig, 
the  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  at  the  Station,  with  the 
following  results.  A  hundred  lambs  were  purchased  from  the 
northwest  part  of  Wisconsin.  They  were  a  ragged  and  poor 
lot  then — lousy,  ticky  and  ornamented  with  burrs.  Thirty-two 
were  not  docked.  These  were  docked  by  tying  a  string  around 
the  tail  just  above  the  joint  to  be  severed,  and  the  tail  was 
cut  at  the  selected  joint.  As  soon  as  the  wound  had  dried, 
the  string  was  removed,  and  no  trouble  occurred.  The  lambs 
were  dipped  to  rid  them  of  ticks  and  lice.  It  certainly  turned 
out  that  this  treatment  was  conducive  to  the  profit  made  in 
the  feeding,  otherwise  the  result  would  have  been  different. 
The  first  trial  was  four  lots;  No  1  fed  with  corn;  No.  2 
with  corn,  and  oats;  No.  3  with  corn  and  peas;  and  No.  4 
with  corn,  oats,  and  peas.  The  results  were  as  follows: 
Time  Dec.  26  to  Feb.  20: 

No.  1.  No.  2.  No.  3.  No.  4. 

Weight  before  trial 86.3  89. 1  85. 6          86.2  Ibs. 

Weight  after  trial 107.2  110.3  110.8  110.3   " 

Gain  in  8  weeks 20.9  21.4  25.2           24.1    " 

Cost  of  food  per  head...  $0.68  $0.81  $0.84  $0.86 

Cost  of  100  Ibs.  gain 3.26  3.81  3.35          3.57 

SECOND  TBIAL— 25  LAMBS  IN  EACH  LOT. 

No.  1.  No.  2.  No.  3.  No.  4. 

Average  weight 75.7  75.6  75.5  75.3  Ibs. 

Weight  at  end  of  trial. ..  90.9  89.7  93.7  90.5   " 

Gain  in  8  weeks,  average  15.2  14.1  18.2  15.2   " 

Gain  per  head 1.9  1.76  2.27  1.9   " 

Cost  of  food  per  head...  $0.66  $0.72  $0.83  $0.80 

Cost  of  100  Ibs.  gain 4.37  5.15  4.58  5.35 

AVERAGE   OF  TWO  TRIALS,   1895-1896. 

No.  1 .       No.  2.       No.  3.       No.  4. 

Average  gain  per  week. .  2.02          1.82          2.41          2.08  Ibs. 
Cost  of  100  Ibs.  gain' $4.12         $4.89         $4.31         $4.86 

The  figures  show  the  results  very  plainly,  and  as  the 
profit  from  the  feeding  is  the  object  for  which  lambs  are 


SCIENTIFIC  EXPERIMENTS  IN  FEEDING.  195 

fed,  the  results  need  no  further  remark  than  that  the  con- 
dition of  the  lambs  is  an  important  element  to  be  consid- 
ered. 

INFLUENCE  OF  BREEDING  ON  THE  FEEDING. 

From  what  has  been  said  on  the  subject  of  breeding, 
in  a  previous  chapter,  it  will  be  easily  gathered,  that  as 
the  feeding  is  one  of  the  most  important  elements  of  im- 
provement of  all  animals  through  the  perpetuation  by  breed- 
ing of  the  advantages  gained  by  skillful  feeding,  feeding 
really  comes  first.  The  improvement  of  animals  by  feeding, 
of  course,  and  necessarily  must  come  first;  for  if  like 
produces  like,  the  breeding  can  only  perpetuate  the  elements 
already  existing.  The  skillful  breeder  selects  the  best  speci- 
mens he  is  able  to  secure,  and  by  coupling  these  he  obtains 
a  progeny  like  the  parents,  and  having  the  inherited  ability 
to  be  still  further  improved  by  a  still  further  aptitude  to 
feed  and  digest  food,  and  thus  not  only  fix  what  has  been 
gained  and  make  it  a  permanent  inheritance,  but  perpetuate 
the  disposition  to  feed  and  turn  the  food  to  the  best  use. 
The  talk  of  the  old  breeders,  as  it  is  of  the  modern  ones, 
\vas  always  of  the  feeding  ability  of  their  stock,  whether  it 
were  cattle  or  sheep.  And  as  we  inherit  the  results  of  a 
century  of  good  feeding,  we  must  still  maint  in  the  condi- 
tion of  our  stock  by  the  same  means  as  it  has  been  originally 
gained. 

Hence  when  we  discuss  the  influence  of  breeding  on  the 
feeding  quality  of  lambs  we  are  simply  gathering  the  ex- 
pected fruits  of  the  inherited  ability  of  the  lambs  to  hold  the 
position  which  they  derived  from  their  parents.  And  what- 
ever facts  are  derived  from  the  results  of  experiments  made 
in  this  line,  we  may  take  as  a  foregone  conclusion  that 
may  be  applied  to  encourage  the  constant  improvement  of 
the  flocks  by  higher  breeding,  for  the  sake  of  the  profit  this 
insures,  when  we  come  to  feed  these  improved  sheep. 

The  experiment  here  to  be  described  was  made  by  the 
Wisconsin  Station  as  a  sort  of  final  test  of  the  influence  of 
-good  breeding  on  profitable  feeding.  A  lot  of  the  station 
lambs  were  selected  and  fed  in  comparison  with  a  lot  of 
common  lambs  procured  from  the  northern  part  of  the  state. 
They  wrere  of  the  common  stock,  bred  promiscuously,  and 


196  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

from  inferior  ewes  and  rams.  The  station  lambs  were 
Shropshire  grades  mostly,  and  having  been  bred  under  the 
care  of  Professor  Craig  were,  we  may  be  sure,  excellent 
of  their  kind.  Twenty  five  of  the  common  lambs  were  fed 
along  with  twelve  of  the  station  lambs.  The  following- 
table  shows  the  results  of  the  test. 

Northern  Lambs.   Station  Lambs. 
Average  weight  at  the  beginning..  75.5   Ibs.          115.9   Ibs. 

Average  weight  at  end  of  trial 93.7 

Gain  in  eight  weeks 18.2 

Weekly  gain 2.27 

Food  eaten— 

Corn  fodder 102.7  ia5. 

Corn 48.8  71. 

Peas  48.8  71. 

Cost  of  feed $0.83  $1.17 

Cost  of  100  Ibs.  gain 4.58  4.08 

Each  of  the  station  lambs  gained  1.3  Ibs.  more  than  the 
other  lambs  per  \veek,  and  while  they  consumed  more  food, 
the  excess  of  food  is  not  as  large  in  proportion  as  the  gain 
made.  This  ability  to  eat  and  profitably  dispose  of  good 
food,  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  features  of  better  breed- 
ing, indeed  it  is  the  very  fundamental  principle  involved  in 
breeding,  and  thus,  it  goes  without  saying,  that  the  better 
bred  the  stock  is  the  better  feeding  it  demands,  and  in  return 
for  this  just  compliance  with  the  demands  of  the  improved 
sheep,  these  make  a  generous  return  with  sufficient  profit  to 
compensate  the  feeder  for  his  just  compliance  with  the  de- 
mands of  his  flock.  This  is  never  to  be  forgotten  by  those 
concerned,  who  are  anxious  to  get  all  the  profit  that  may  be 
from  their  improved  stock. 

An  instance  that  may  be  pertinent,  and  that  tells  the 
story  in  an  emphatic  manner,  may  be  given.  There  was  a 
noted  breeder  of  Jersey  cows,  who  sold  a  high  bred  calf  to  a 
farmer  at  a  distance.  This  man  was  one  of  those  who,  very 
mistakenly,  think  high  breeding  will  give  the  ability  to  an 
animal  to  live  on  less  food  than  a  common  scrub,  as  it  is 
called;  and  that  the  high  price  paid  for  an  animal  of  this 
kind  will  be  returned  in  the  cheaper  feeding  of  it.  The  calf 
under  this  kind  of  management  soon  became  an  object  for  the 
pity  of  any  humane  person,  and  of  reproach  to  its  owner. 
The  owner  became  exceedingly  wroth  against  the  breeder 
of  the  calf,  and  as  an  example  had  the  poor  animal  put  on 
exhibition  at.  a  popular  state  fair,  and  on  his  card  mentioned 
the  name  of  the  breeder  of  whom  the  calf  had  boon  bought. 


SCIENTIFIC  EXPERIMENTS  IN   FEEDING.  197 

This  second  foolish  act  of  the  man  of  course  told  severely 
against  him  in  the  minds  of  well-informed  visitors,  but  it 
procured  him  sympathy  from  those  who  were  not  better  in- 
formed than  himself.  The  calf  was  purchased  for  a  small 
price,  and  under  the  right  treatment,  became  a  noted  cow 
whose  progeny  sold  for  the  highest  prices  current  for  Jersey 
stock. 

Of  course  the  same  applies  to  sheep  as  to  other  animals, 
and  purchasers  of  high  bred  breeding  stock,  whether  ewes 
or  rams,  should  take  this  essential  fact  into  consideration, 
and  make  it  a  rule  of  management  to  treat  the  animals 
with  every  possible  liberality,  of  course,  in  a  judicious  way, 
and  keep  in  mind  this  fundamental  principle,  that  breeding, 
being  a  natural  result  of  the  precise  condition  of  the  animals 
bred,  the  progeny  must  have  the  same  liberal  treatment, 
and  we  may  be  sure  it  will  be  as  liberally  returned  with  in- 
terest, as  it  is  liberally  afforded. 

The  result  of  the  foregoing  experiment  in  feeding  the 
lambs  may  be  given  as  follows. 

Difference  of  profit  between  the  two  lots: 

25  Northern  Lambs.  12  Station  Lambs. 

Cost,  at  3  cents  a  pound $56.68  $41.73 

Final  value 93.70  69.50 

Cost  of  food 20.75  14.14 

Profit  per  head 0.65  1.13 

CONDITION,  AND  ITS  EFFECT  ON  VALUE. 

The  professional  seller  of  live  stock  has  certain  elements 
of  value  to  guide  him  in  the  pursuit  of  his  business.  One 
of  these,  if  not  the  principal  one,  is  what  is  termed  condition, 
or  sometimes  quality.  It  is  this  special  characteristic  of  the 
animal  which  gives  final  value  to  the  meat  to  the  con- 
sumer, who  of  course  chooses  the  meat  which  has  the  least 
waste,  and  is  of  the  most  promising  appearance  for  econom- 
ical domestic  use.  This  quality  necessarily  has  its  special 
value,  and  where  sheep  or  lambs  are  offered  for  sale,  as  in- 
deed cattle  as  well,  the  buyer  will  take  pains  to  ascertain 
the  condition  of  the  animals  he  is  proposing  to  buy.  Neces- 
sarily the  producer  must  be  well  informed  of  the  nature 
of  this  condition,  so  that  he  may  send  only  those  best  fitted 
for  market,  if  he  thinks  of  getting  the  top  price.  There  are 
numerous  instances  in  which  the  commission  man  will  tell 
his  client,  you  should  have  kept  these  lambs  or  wethers  a 


198  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

moiitli  or  two  more,  to  get  them  into  better  condition.  This 
suggestion  means  to  the  owner  a  loss  of  money  on  his  con- 
signment, perhaps  a  dollar  a  hundred  pounds,  which  might 
have  been  saved  by  two  or  three  weeks  longer  feeding,  by 
which  not  only  the  value  would  have  been  increased  in  pro- 
portion to  the  condition,  but  as  to  the  increased  weight  as 
well.  It  is  to  get  this  condition  that  many  farmers  buy 
stock  in  the  markets  that  are  as  yet  only  feeders,  and  not 
finished  for  the  butcher,  and  get  such  animals  at  such  a  less 
price,  that  it  pays  the  purchasers  to  take  them  home  and 
feed  them,  adding  to  the  weight  by  which  a  good  profit 
is  made,  and  getting  as  a  bonus  the  enhanced  value  due  to 
the  improved  condition. 

The  first  test  of  condition  is  smoothness  of  the  carcass. 
The  bones  are  well  covered,  and  the  body  is  round  and  well 
filled  up.  Some  animals  are  better  shaped  for  this  than 
others,  and  these  the  professional  feeder  calls  "good  feed- 
ers." That  is,  their  bones  are  not  so  prominent,  the  back- 
bone does  not  form  a  ridge  along  the  back,  the  sides  are 
deep,  the  ribs  are  well  arched,  the  neck  is  short,  the  head 
fine,  and  small,  and  the  legs  well  spread  apart.  You  cannot 
build  a  broad  house  on  a  narrow  foundation,  and  an  animal 
must  have  the  right  shape  before  it  may  be  profitably  put 
into  really  good  condition.  The  figure  will  in  no  part  be 
regular  or  thin,  but  round  and  full,  with  soft  flesh  which 
covers  the  bones,  and  to  which  the  skin  is  loosely  attached. 
The  outside  is  a  key  to  the  condition  of  the  inside,  and  we 
are  to  judge  by  the  outer  form  and  feeling,  what,  the  actual 
condition  will  be  when  the  carcass  is  exposed  to  view  in  the 
butcher's  stall.  It  is  a  good  plan  for  those  concerned  in 
feeding  sheep  for  market,  to  visit  a  great  city  and  stroll 
through  the  markets  there,  and  talk  with  the  market  men. 
Many  valuable  hints  may  thus  be  procured  which  will  be 
useful  in  the  rearing  of  market  animals. 

Generally  it  is  the  larger  animals  which  are  defective 
in  condition.  Size  is  of  no  account  unless  the  condition  is 
satisfactory.  A  lamb  may  match  the  si/e  most  desired,  but 
it,  is  not  weight  alone  which  gives  value.  Another  may  be 
ten  or  twenty  pounds  over  the  average  weight  desired,  and 
yet  may  bring  a  better  price  for  the  reason  that  its  condition 
is  better  than  that  of  a  smaller  animal.  It  is  to  be  thought 


200  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

of  that  the  end  of  all  is  the  meat,  and  the  quality  of  it 
This  is  the  only  useful  part  to  the  consumer.  The  more  meal 
there  is  in  a  twenty  pound  quarter,  and  the  less  bone,  the 
better  the  animal  is;  for  whatever  less  of  actual  meat  there 
may  be,  the  more  there  is  in  proportion  of  bone  and  worth- 
less stuff.  And  to  secure  this  desired  condition  too  it  is  better 
to  feed  a  longer  time,  than  to  rush  the  feeding  through  by  too 
liberal  rations.  The  fat  made  now  is  not  wanted  in  the 
meat,  and  not  laid  all  on  it  on  the  outside  of  the  carcass. 
The  actual  appearance  of  the  carcasses,  as  shown  by  the 
photograph  on  the  previous  page,  of  the  first  and  third  lots 
of  lambs,  the  first  being  fed  grain  from  birth,  and  the 
third  only  three  months  before  marketing,  goes  to  show  the 
inside  appearance  of  what  good  condition  is,  and  how  it  se- 
cures that  economy  in  the  final  use  of  the  meat,  which  justi- 
fies the  butcher  in  giving  a  higher  price  for  the  best  car- 
casses, as  well  as  in  exacting  a  higher  price  from  the  house- 
keeper who  is  quite  willing  to  pay  it  as  a  simple  matter 
of  domestic  economy.  The  feeder  will  work  with  more  light 
and  better  success,  who  understands  fully  what  this  term, 
condition,  signifies. 

In  the  previous  illustration  we  may  readily  select  the 
best  conditioned  lamb  by  the  rounder  back;  the  more  even 
distribution  of  the  fat  with  the  lean,  and  the  larger  volume 
of  the  lean  as  it  is  surrounded  by  the  loin  fat.  This  is  the 
result  of  the  smooth,  broader  back  taken  as  one  of  the 
tests  of  condition  of  the  sheep.  We  may  readily  perceive 
that  this  is  one  of  the  results  of  breeding  as  well  as  of  feed- 
ing, and  is  as  much  due  to  the  rams  used  as  to  the  good 
feeding  of  the  ewes  while  carrying  their  lambs,  and  the 
skillful  feeding  of  the  lambs. 


CHAPTER   V. 

BARNS  AND  STABLES. 

The  best  arrangement  of  buildings  for  a  sheep  farm  is  a 
matter  of  economy,  for  whatever  is  mos-t  convenient  for  use 
saves  time  and  avoids  waste  of  feed.  A  great  waste  of  fod- 
der may  occur  unless  the  feed  racks  are  made  on  the  best 
plan  to  prevent  it,  and  with  a  mere  trough  for  the  grain  the 
strongest  sheep  will  push  its  way  along,  monopolizing  the 
most  of  it,  and  driving  the  rest  of  the  flock  before  it  deprive 
them  of  a  due  share.  This  is  a  waste,  and  an  injury  to  the 
greedier  feeder,  while  the  weaklings  of  the  flock  are  starved. 
The  structure  of  the  whole  building  too  is  to  be  well  studied 
out,  so  thai  it  may  be  arranged  on  the  most  useful  system. 

A  few  remarks  on  the  general  theory  of  sheep  shelters 
may  be  useful  at  the  outset.  There  is  no  necessity  for 
heavy,  costly  barns  or  stables.  Light  structures  with  ample 
floor  space  are  the  best  in  every  way.  And  we  are  not 
studying  style  at  present,  but  simply  the  ways  in  which  the 
shepherd  may  use  the  money  to  the  best  advantage,  and 
with  the  utmost  economy  of  time  and  labor  in  the  general 
care  and  attention  given  to  the  flock. 

The  most  space  is  contained  in  a  square  building,  at 
least  as  compared  with  longer  and  narrower  ones.  There  is 
most  space  for  the  length  of  outer  wall  in  a  round  building; 
and  the  octagon  and  hexagon,  with  their  eight  or  six  sides, 
come  next  to  the  full  square.  The  octagonal  style  of  build- 
ing is  coming  into  favor  for  farm  structures,  and  many  are 
adopting  the  round  form  for  all  kinds'  of  storage  barns 
and  the  accommodation  of  the  live  stock.  The  accompany- 
ing sketch  is  of  an  octagonal  building  29  feet  in  diameter, 
of  which  the  floor  space  gives  696  square  feet.  A  square  build- 
ing with  the  wall  96  feet  in  length  will  give  only  576  square 
feet  of  space,  and  will  be  tAventy-four  feet  only  in  diameter. 
A  round  barn  of  the  same  length  of  wall  will  give  732  feet 


202 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


OCTAGONAL  BARN. 


of  floor.  It  is  easier,  however,  to  build  an  octagonal  barn 
than  a  round  one,  for  the  timbers  are  much  more  easily 
put  together,  and  the  structure  is  much  stronger;  each  corner 
binding  the  whole  in  an  equally  solid  manner;  in  truth, 
more  so,  than  in  the  round  one  or  the  square.  The  plan 
here  given  is  one  of  96  feet  of  wall,  that  is,  twelve  feet  on 

each  side,  by  which  there  is 
room  for  nine  places  for  feed- 
ing on  each  side,  thus  giving 
accommodation  for  a  large 
flock  if  several  feeding  racks 
are  scattered  about  between 
the  middle  rack  and  the  outer 
ones.  It  is  well  adapted 
to  lamb  rearing,  on  account 
of  the  number  of  small  pens 
which  may  be  made  large 
enough  for  a  ewe  and  its  lamb 
or  for  two  or  three  lambs,  the 
middle  space  being  used  for 
feeding  the  lambs  by  turning  them  out  when  the  ewes  are 
brought  in  to  suckle  them.  A  barn  built  on  this  plan  may 
have  two  floors,  by  which  the  capacity  is  doubled  at  a  very 
small  increased  cost,  the  main,  floor  being  three  feet  below 
the  surface  and  the  upper  one  four  feet  above,  and  being 
reached  by  a  plank  walk  at  each  door.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
the  capacity  of  such  a  barn  as  this  is  increased  four  times 
by  doubling  the  diameter,  and  one-half  increase  in  this,  that 
is,  from  twenty-nine  or  thirty  feet  to  forty-five,  will  make  it 
two  and  a  half  times  as  capacious. 

The  method  of  building  such  a  barn  is  much  cheaper 
than  that  of  the  square  or  oblong  form.  The  floor  should 
be  of  cement  concrete,  and  it  is  best  to  have  the  foundation 
for  the  sills  of  the  same  material,  but  it  need  not  be  over 
six  inches  thick,  merely  to  raise  the  timbers  from  the  ground. 
The  sills  may  not  be  over  four  inches  thick,  and  eight  wide 
is  sufficient.  The  corners  are  merely  halved  together  and 
bolted  with  a  one-inch  iron  bolt.  The  scantling  for  the 
walls  for  the  two  floors  should  be  six  by  two  inches,  and  a 
row  of  these  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  building  and 
rest  on  posts  six  inches  square.  There  is  a  central  shoot 


BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


203 


in  the  middle  made  of  two  inch  plank  for  taking  down  the 
fodder,  and  the  inner  row  of  beams  rest  on  this;  the  beams 
being  for  the  size  of  building  mentioned,  eight  inches  wide 
and  two  thick.  It  is  well  to  support  these  beams  in  a  sutii- 
eient  number  of  places  by  braces  at  each  alternate  post. 

The  plates  are  eight  by  two  or  three  inches,  halved  to- 
gether as  the  floor  sills  are,  and  secured  by  bolts  held  by 
screw  ends  and  nuts.  The  upper  part  has  the  usual  pudine 
plates  over  the  rows  of  posts  below,  and  these  are  well  bolted 
together.  The  rafters  are  in  two  parts,  the  lower  set  hav- 
ing a  high  slope  so  as  to  afford  as  much  storage  space  as 
possible  above.  There  is  a  hay  shoot  in  the  center,  down 
which  the  fodder  is  sent  from  the  hay  floor  on  the  top, 
and  shoots  are  made  in  convenient  places  to  send  down  the 
grain,  which  is  distributed  through  the  feed  troughs  below 
by  means  of  spouts  made  of  common  bagging  cloth,  placed 
at  convenient  distances,  by  which  the  grain  from  the  bins 
above  is  shot  down  into  the  feed  troughs  on  either  floor, 
being  guided  by  an  assistant  below  who  leads  the  spout 
from  place  to  place  as  he  may  desire. 

This  kind  of  barn  has  been  found  very  convenient  and 
cheap  to  build,  two  men  having  fully  completed  one  of  the 
size  mentioned  in  a  week,  the  roof  being  quickly  and  well 
made  by  the  use  of  the 
metallic  roofing  plates,  simply 
nailed  to  the  rafters  without 
any  sheeting  under  it,  unless 
this  is  desired.  But  as  the 
roof  is  quite  steep  it  may  be 
made  of  the  plain  weather 
boarding,  lapped  two  inches 
and  painted.  The  top  should 
be  covered  for  two  feet  or  so 
by  a  cap  of  sheet  zinc  or  gal- 
vanized iron.  The  cut  shows 
the  arrangement  of  the  hay 
spouts  and  the  feed  racks. 

Figure  2  is  that  of  a  cheap  frame  building  of  light 
materials  put  together  in  the  strongest  manner  by  means 
of  the  bracing  shown.  It  has  a  clear  floor  above,  and  it  may 
be  made  of  three  stories,  two  floors  being  occupied  by  sheep, 


FEED  RACKS  AND  SPOUTS. 


204 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


find  the  top  floor  by  fodder.  It  will  make  a  most  desirable 
house  for  rearing  lambs,  as  there  may  be  six  rows  of  peiis 
on  the  main  floor,  double  planked,  if  two  floors  are  used, 
in  the  upper  part,  to  keep  the  lower  one  dry.  Or  the  upper 
floor  may  be  occupied  by  the  lambs  and  the  lower  one  by  the 
ewes.  The  braces  bolted  to  the  other  parts  of  the  frame 
give  great  stiffness  as  well  as  a  clear  space  at  very  little 
cost  of  labor  in  the  building.  A  barn  on  this  plan,  180  feet 


PIG.  2.— CHEAPLY   BUILT  SHEEP  BARN. 

by  40  has  beou  found  to  cost  less  than  half  that  of  a  square 
barn  writh  the  same  floor  room,  which  is  7,200  square  feet,  a 
little  less  than  one-sixth  of  an  acre,  or  a  third  if  two  floors 
are  used.  It  will  accommodate  700  sheep,  giving  one  and  a 
half  feet  of  rack  length  to  each  sheep,  which  is  ample;  or  if 
for  lambs  there  may  be  room  made  for  400  ewes,  as  well  as 
the  same  number  of  lambs,  which  will  be  kept  in  pens  in  the 
middle  space. 

It  has  been  contended  by  some  sheep  breeders  that  en- 
closed stables  are  not  desirable,  and  that  mere  open  sheds 
are  sufficient.  This  is  opposed  to  scientific  rules,  which  go 
to  prove  most  emphatically,  that  exposure  of  any  animal  to 
cold  causes  a  waste  of  food  \vhich  is  required  to  maintain 
the  animal  heat  indispensable  for  health  and  comfort,  both 
of  which  terms  are  equivalent;  for  discomfort,  as  we  know- 
in  our  own  experience,  is  merely  a  condition  whiich  leads  to 
disease,  and  a  diseased  sheep  will  first  show  its  conditio-u 
by  the  dropping  of  the  wool  or  a  serious  loss  of  flesh.  So 
that  the  belief  of  every  well  informed  shepherd  is  that  sheep 
need  good  comfortable  shelter,  as  well  as  other  animals  do. 


BARNS  AND  STABLES.  205 

There  is  110  necessity  for  expensive  buildings,  all  that  is  re- 
quired is  shelter  from  the  snow  and  rains  of  the  Winter. 
This  is  so  important  that  the  Scotch,  and  some  of  the  Eng- 
lish, shepherds  take  every  precaution  to  protect  the  sheep 
by  the  use  of  oiled  jackets  to  shed  the  rain  from  the  sheep's 
back,  which  is  the  most  vulnerable  part  of  the  body,  as  the 
spinal  nerve  which  runs  along  this  part  of  the  body  may  be 
easily  chilled,  and  this  causes  sucih  serious  disorders  of  this 
nervous  center  of  the  body,  as  to  produce  the  most  fatal 
diseases.  It  will  be  useful  to  refer  to  the  chapter  on  diseases, 
in  which  this  most  sensitive  part  of  the  sheep's  anatomy  is 
fully  described,  and  the  effects  of  injury  to  this  great 
nervous  center  are  particularly  discussed.  Besides  this  pre- 
caution, these  shepherds  grease  the  fleece  so  that  it  will  shed 
the  rain  and  prevent  it  from  penetrating  to  the  skin,  and 
thus  by  the  severe  chilling  effects  cause  these  spinal  diseases. 
These  precautions  are  needed  when  sheep  are  fed  out  in  the 
fields,  gathering  for  themselves  the  common  root  crops  on 
which  the  chief  Winter  feeding  of  the  flocks  consist,  nnd  es- 
pecially in  a  climate  where  rain  is  so  almost  constantly 
drizzling  as  in  England  and  Scotland. 

There  are  serious  difficulties  in  the  way  of  our  adoption 
of  this  method  of  feeding  our  flocks,  and  thus  we  are  obliged 
to  provide  ample  protection  by  means  of  sheds,  or  com- 
pletely finished  barns  or  enclosed  stables.  The  mere  shel- 
ter is  all  that  is  needed,  but  provided  in  such  a  way  that  the 
necessary  conditions  for  health  are  secured. 

An  excellent  shed  suitable  for  sheep  may  be  built  for 
the  small  cost  of  fifty  cents  a  foot  in  length,  and  length  is 
more  important  than  width,  for  a  wide  building  must  have 
stiff  and  heavy  timber  in  the  frame,  while  one  of  twrenty 
feet  in  width  may  be  made  wholly  of  the  lightest  framing 
stuff.  Indeed  there  need  be  no  framing  about  it;  the  stuff 
is  put  together  with  nails  only,  and  with  a  double  row  of 
studding  in  the  center,  where  the  feed  racks  are  placed,  will 
serve  to  hold  up  the  fodder  stored  above.  The  author  has 
built  a  substantial  shed  twenty  feet  wide  and  a  hundred  feet 
long  for  fifty  cents  a  running  foot:  and  with  extra  fittings 
and  everything  done  in  the  best  manner,  the  cost  has  been 
under  a  dollar  a  foot  for  a  well  furnished  lamb  house,  sepa- 
rate pens  and  feed  arrangements  all  included. 


206  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

Twenty  feet  is  quite  sufficient  width  for  any  sheep 
house.  This  permits  four  feed  racks,  a  double  one  in  the 
center,  and  one  at  each  side,  or  a  row  of  lamb  pens  on  one 
side  if  desired.  If  the  ground  is  dry,  and  not  in  a  hollow, 
so  that  the  rain  flows  off  from  the  eaves  on  each  side  into 
gutters  provided  to  carry  off  the  water,  no  floor  will  be  needed. 
The  whole  front  may  be  made  of  sliding  doors  hung  on  rol- 
lers, the  doors  being  pushed  open  in  tine  weather,  and  closed 
in  storms.  The  upper  half  of  each  door  is  provided  with 
shutters  that  may  be  opened  when  needed  or  closed  for  full 
protection.  These  shutters  are  hinged  so  that  they  may  be 
turned  down,  and  bars  are  placed  inside,  as  a  protection  for 
the  sheep  in  such  localities  as  where  prowling  dogs  are  too 
numerous  or  wild  animals  may  attack  the  flock  at  night. 

For  range  flocks  shelters  may  be  made  very  cheaply. 
The  author,  when  keeping  a  flock  in  Western  Kansas,  built 
a  range  of  sheds  in  this  manner.  The  outer  Avail  was  of 
sods  laid  up  in  the  manner  of  a  sod  house,  then  a  common 
method  of  construction  on  the  op<en  range  and  distant  from 
the  railroad,  and  especially  wrheu  the  capital  in  hand  could 
be  much  more  proiKably  employed  in  buying  and  feeding 
sheep,  than  in  costly  buildings.  The  main  building  was  a 
shed  five  hundred  feet  long,  the  outer  wall  made  of  sods 
cut  with  a  sharp  steel  plow,  and  chopped  with  a  broad-ax 
into  lengths  of  six  feet.  The  sods  were  eighteen  inches 
wide  a,ud  four  inches  thick.  They  were  laid  up  into  a  wall 
six  feet  high.  The  front  of  the  shed  was  of  posts  eight  feet 
above  the  ground  level,  of  cottonwood  cut  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  which  ran  through  the  range.  The  plates  in  front 
and  the  rafters  were  of  the  same  kind  of  timber,  and  the 
roof  was  of  thatch  made  of  the  abundant  grass  and  sedge 
in  the  wet  bottom  lands,  which  supplied  very  good  hay  when 
cut  in  good  time. 

Six  similar  sheds  were  made  from  this  main  one,  half 
the  length.  These  were  double,  having  a  row  of  posts  in  the 
center  and  one  at  each  side.  The  roofs  were  all  of  thatch 
as  the  main  shed  roof  was.  The  outside  sheds  had  the  outer 
walls  of  sods,  and  the  shepherd's  house  was  wholly  of  sods, 
with  a  thatched  roof.  This  thatch  is  made  of  bunches  of 
grass  laid  first  on  the  eaves,  and  tied  dowm  to  split  laths 
tied  to  the  rafters,  writh  tarred  twine  sufficiently  strong  for 


BARNS   AND  STABLES. 


207 


the  purpose.  As  a  row  of  the  thatch  was  laid  another  was 
laid  on  it,  and  fastened  down  with  the  twine.  As  each  row 
of  thatch  was  laid  it  was  beaten  down  with  a  light  mallet 
to  flatten  it.  The  top  of  the  roof  was  tied  in  a  similar  way 
by  winding  the  twine  in  and  through  the  grass  so  as  to 
secure  it  firmly.  The  roof  so  made  was  perfectly  water- 
tight, and  after  being  clipped  with  shears  made  a  smooth, 
neat  appearance. 

The  front  was  made  of  wire  fence  seven  feet  high, 
and  the  strands  three 'inches  apart  for  four  feet  up,  and 
seven  inches  for  the  rest.  Sufficient  gates,  made  of  split 
stakes,  were  put  in  the  front.  There  were  five  separate 
yards,  each  eighty  feet  wide,  and  the  Winter  stock  of  fodder 
was  stacked  in  these  yards  to  which  the  sheep  had  free  ac- 

£-  0  o    24- 


.—  i*    <£=~. 

**?     <~- 

•^~*    4=*^, 

PLAN   OF  SHEEP  SHEDS. 

cess.  Corn  was  fed  on  the  ground,  and  this  without  any 
waste;  the  sheep  eating  it  clean  from  the  ground;  and  each 
getting  its  due  share  better  than  whe/u  fed  in  troughs.  The 
whole  enclosure  was  about  three  acres.  The  sheep  fed  out 
on  the  range  most  of  the  time,  and  were  brought  into  the 
shelter  only  when  storms  threatened.  A  barometer,  of  the 
kind  known  as  aneroid  (a  perfect  portable  instrument)  was 
daily  consulted  and  at  every  considerable  fall  the  flocks 
were  brought  up.  This  is  a  good  practice  to  follow  oai 
the  range,  as  in  every  instance  the  prediction  of  the  barome- 
ter was  verified,  and  many  sheep  were  saved  that  would 
surely  have  been  lost  without  these  warnings.  A  plan  of 
the  sheds  is  given,  the  gates  are  seen  to  open  inwards,  a  con- 
venient precaution  for  safety. 


208 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


A  few  years'  experience  showed  that  the  use  of  fodder 
racks  for  feeding  under  similar  circumstances,  is  not  profita- 
ble. The  racks  cost  something,  especially  where  lumber  is 
worth  a  high  pi-ice,  and  generally  is  not  to  be  obtained.  The 
loss  of  hay,  costing  something  less  than  a  dollar  a  ton 
stacked  in  the  yards,  and  the  entire  absence  of  waste  in  feed- 
ing corn  on  the  ground,  by  exercising  a  little  care  in  scatter- 


a,  Slats  2x1^  inches,  sloping  in, 
nailed  to  scantlings  2x2  at  top.  c, 
Sliding  boards.  2,2,  Grain  troughs 8 
inches  wide.  Bars  are  nailed  across 
the  grain  rack  of  every  third  slat  to 
prevent  sheep  from  crowding. 

DOUBLE  HAY  RACKS  AND  TROUGHS. 

ing  it  from  a  wagon  before  the  sheep  have  been  let  out  and 
have  scattered,  render  this  method  of  feeding  the  most 
economical  under  the  circumstances.  If  a  hay  and  grain 
rack  is  thought  desirable  this  one  is  recommended. 

Another  form  of  feed  rack  and  grain  trough  is  shown  in 
figure  below.  When  lambs  are  running  in  the  sheds  with  the 
ewes  it  will  be  safe  to  close  in  the  ends  of  the  feed  racks, 

and  indeed  to  carefully  close 
every  space  or  hole  in  which 
they  can  enter,  as  it  will  be 
sure  to  happen  that  these  mis- 
chievous little  things  will 
crawl  in  somewhere  and  get 
fast  and  only  be  discovered 
when  too  late,  and  they  are 
lost. 

SOILING  SHEEP. 
On  farms  where  the  past- 
urage is  not  sufficient,  and 
green  crops  for  feeding  may 
be  grown  at  a  small  cost,  feed- 
ing these  in  yards  in  which 
there  is  convenient  shed  for 


HAY  BACK   AND  GRAIN  BOX. 

Grain  box  has  cross  cleats  to 
keep  feed  in  place  for  each  sheep. 


shelter  at  night  or  in  stormy  weather  in  the  Winter,  will  be 
found  a  cheap  a,nd  very  desirable  practice. 

A  barn  or  shed  placed  in  a  central  part  of  the  space 
to  be  allotted  for  this  use  will  be  required.     A  plan  of  such 


BARNS   AND  STABLES. 


20'J 


a  shed  is  here  given.  It  is  designed  for  a  flock  of  sixty  or 
seventy,  with  room  for  the  lambs  included.  It  is  made  with 
a  low  roof  projecting  well  over  the  walls,  so  as  to  afford  pro- 


SHED   FOR   SOILING  SHEEP, 

tection  from  sweeping  rains  or  snows.  The  window  places 
are  open  but  protected  by  wire  netting  as  a  precaution 
against  dogs,  where  this  danger  may  exist. 

The  floor  plan  is  shown  at  figure.  The  feed  racks  run 
around  three  sides  and  partly  in  the  front,  writh  one  in  the 
center  giving  the  usual  rack  space  of  a  foot  and  a  half  for 
each  of  about  seventy  sheep. 

The  upper  part  of  the  front 
door  slides  on  rollers,  and  is 
made  of  slate  so  as  to  give 
ample  ventilation  along  with 
the  large  open  window  spaces. 

The'  lot.  appropriated  for 
the  sheep  is  fenced  into  con- 
venient plots,  into  -each  of 
which  the  lower  gate  opens  so 
that  the  flock  may  be  turned 
out  to  feed  on  the  remains  of 
the  crops  after  the  cutting  has 
been  completed.  Indeed  it  is 
a  part  of  this  system  that  the 
sheep  may  be  fed  out  of  doors, 
in  any  of  the  separate  plots  by 
cutting  the  crop  in  an  adjoin-  FLOOR  PLAN  OF  SHED. 


210 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


•€> 


ing  lot,  and  giving  it  in  suitable  racks.  A  large  quantity  of 
dry  fodder  may  be  saved  in  this  way  for  Winter  use,  for  as 
fast  as  one  plot  is  fed  off,  the  land  is  immediately  sown  or 
planted  with  another;  and  it  is  this  succession  which  makes 
this  method  of  feeding  so  cheap  and  profitable.  It  is  used 
in  dairies  for  feeding  cows,  and  under  this  system  one 
square  rod  of  ground  feeds  a  cow  one  day,  thus  making  one 
acre  and  one  crop  feed  160  days.  This  is  equivalent  to  seven 
sheep.  By  good  management,  as  by  having  crops  come  in 
succession,  two  and  even  three  may  be  grown  on  the  same 
laud  in  the  Summer. 

The  chief  crop  is  sweet 
corn,  the  earliest  of  which 
planted  in  this  way,  three 
times  as  thickly  as  for  a  grain 
crop,  may  mature  in  sixty 
days.  This  may  be  followed 
as  soon  as  cut  by  another 
planting.  Indeed,  the  cutting 
and  planting  go  on  simulta- 
neously, for  as  fast  as  a  strip 
of  ground  is  cleared,  the  plow 
is  put  in  and  this  land  planted 
or  sown  at  once. 

The  most  suitable  crops  for  this  system  of  feedijng  are 
sweet  corn,  mixed  oats  and  peas.  Sorghum  (which  may  be 
cut  three  times),  rape,  and  one  plot  of  orchard  grass,  which 
affords  constant  pasture  if  well  distributed  through  the 
whole  season,  from  April  until  the  snow  flies.  Turnips  or 
rape  may  be  sown  on  the  last  corn,  to  add  to  the  feeding 
season.  Suggestions  in  this  way  only  need  to  be  given,  the 
intelligent  reader  will  suit  himself  according  to  his  circum- 
stances, only  following  the  general  plan  of  always  having 
something  growing,  and  no  land  idle  a  single  day  during  the 
growing  season..  In  this  way  every  farmer  may  find  it 
easy,  and  exceedingly  profitable,  to  feed  a  flock  that  may 
bring  in  five  or  six  dollars  a  head  every  year,  and  at  the 
same  time  add  considerably  to  the  products  of  the  land 
by  its  enrichment  through  the  manure  made.  This  is  most 
important  for  every  farmer  to  consider. 


*PLAS  0V  BHEEP-TARD. 


BARNS   AND  STABLES.  211 

HANDLING  SHEEP. 

The  handling  of  sheep  is  a  science  to  be  studied.  You 
cannot  drive  them  without  some  method  of  controlling 
them.  Where  one  leads  all  will  follow.  There  is  an  old,  but 
doubtless  true,  story  told  of  a  flock  going  to  market,  and 
there  came  in  the  way  a  small  huckster's  cart  loaded  with 
truck.  There  was  ample  rqom  for  the  sheep  to  pass,  but 
one  sprightly  ram  took  a  notion  to  jump  over  the  cart,  which 
he  did  in  the  best  style;  every  other  sheep  followed  the  lead, 
and  made  a  flying  leap  over  the  cart,  and  the  bewildered 
driver  of  it.  Sheep  have  this  way  of  "following  my  leader" 
just  as  the  boys  do  in  their  games,  and  it  must  be  pre- 
pared for  by  some  reason  of  controlling  them  and  forcing 
them  to  go  in  the  way  they  should.  The  stock  yards  afford 
a  lesson  to  the  shepherd,  for  on  some  of  the  large  ranches 
there  are  equally  easy  means  of  handling  sheep  in  a  large 
flock.  Mr.  J.  E.  Wing  of  Ohio  gives  us  a  story  of  the  man- 
agement of  sheep  at  one  of  the  stock  yards  in  Chicago,  and 
his  pleasantly  told  tale  interests  all  concerned,  shippers  of 
flocks  for  sale,  and  especially  buyers  for  feeding. 

SEEN  AT  THE  CHICAGO  STOCK  YARDS. 

The  stock  yards  is  an  admirable  place  to  study  the 
American  sfeeep  industry.  I  could  spend  weeks  in  the  sheep 
sheds  with  pleasure  and  profit.  Let's  look  through  together. 

Here  is  a  load— some  250  head  of  Montana  wethers. 
They  are  great  tall,  big-framed,  lusty  fellows,  mostly 
smooth-headed,  but  a  few  have  horns.  They  are  fat  and 
the  killers  want  them.  The  buyers  look  them  over  ajnd  bid 
-I1/*.  That  means  about  $5  each  for  the  lot,  and  a  happy 
rancher  somewhere  on  the  slopes  of  the  Rockies. 

Here  is  a  lot  in  thinner  flesh  that  will  go  out  to  the 
country  to  be  fed.  They  will  cost  about  $3.60,  or  better, 
and  as  they  are  good  shearers,  will  no  doubt  be  money 
makers  this  year  of  cheap  feed.  The  evenness  of  size  and 
appearance  of  these  westerners  is  much  in  their  favor.  This 
is  mainly  the  result  of  correct  breeding,  but  proper  sorting 
has  done  a  good  deal  toward  it. 

Here  we  see  a  bunch  of  newly  arrived  sheep  being  "put 
through  the  mill."  The  man  with  the  sharp  eye  and  trained 


212 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


judgment,  stands  and  shifts  the  gate,  shunting  the  ewes 
and  thin  sheep  into  one  pen,  theprime  muttons  into  another. 
This  sorting  pen  is  so  useful  a  thing  that  1  think  best  to 
show  a  sketch  of  it  here.  Most  sheep  farmers  need  one. 

The  lane  must  be  narrow  enough  to  compel  single  file, 
as  the  sheep  go  in,  sixteen  inches  is  about  right,  and  the 
lane  should  be  ten  feet  long  at  the  least,  twenty  feet  is  bet- 
ter, and  the  gate  closed  or  opened  switches  the  approaching 
sheep  into  either  apartment  as  desired. 


SORTING   PEN. 

This  pen  of  western  lambs  interests  us.  They  have  the 
tell-tale  smutty  faces  indicating  the  Shrop  cross.  We  would 
like  them  to  feed,  so  healthy  and  lively  and  growthy  they 
seem,  but  Swift's  buyer  bids  above  the  nickle  and  we  leave 
them  to  him. 

Here  is  a  small  lot  of  native  lambs.  They  seem  nearly 
full-blooded  Shrops.  Note  the  shrunken  fleece,  lack-lustre 
eyes  and  languid  movements.  These  mean  that  parasites 
have  struck  them.  Everywhere  I  go  the  evidence  piles  up 
before  me  that  the  parasite  has  the  eastern  shipman  in  his 
grip.  What  are  we  going  to  do  about  it?  We  will  do  some- 
thing, depend  upon  it. 

Here  are  some  native  ewes,  good  ones,  nearly  pure- 
blooded  Shrops.  They,  too,  are  infested,  as  is  plain  to  be 


BARNS  AND  STABLES.  213 

seen.  A  farmer  has  bought  them  to  take  back  to  the  coun- 
try. I  pity  him  his  experience  of  the  next  year  or  two. 

Here  is  another  pen  of  natives,  and  what  queer  sheep 
they  are!  Long  in  the  leg,  thin  in  the  fleece,  thin  in  the 
chest,  with  pendulous  bellies,  like  Indian  famine  sufferers; 
it  is  a  mystery  to  us  that  such  sheep  should  exist  in  America 
and  good  rams  so  cheap.  There  is  a  vast  difference  in  the 
quality  of  the  westerns.  Some  one-half  Cotswolds  from 
Utah  tempt  us,  but  Swift  wants  them  and  we  let  him  have 
them. 

Monday  morning  sees  a  big  "run"  of  25,000  head  in  the 
pens,  and  for  once  the  feeder  has  a  chance  after  the  killers 
have  supplied  themselves.  We  fall  in  love  with  some  one- 
half  and  three-quarter  blood  Shrops  from  Wyoming  and  the 
salesman  makes  a  quarter  concession  to  us  and  soon  600 
lambs  are  rolling  toward  Woodland  Farm  feed  yards.  We 
have  paid  a  long  price,  to  be  sure,  but  they  are  only  56  Ibs., 
and  are  all  so  even,  so  healthy  and  so  free  from  "tail"  that 
we  view  them  again  and  again  with  delight.  We  have 
never  had  such  feeders,  aoid  visions  of  fat  100  pounders  next 
March  appear  to  us.  First  to  the  dipping  vat  they  must  go, 
and  the  600  go  through  it  in  less  than  an  hour.  There  is  no 
scab  on  them  and  we  feel  very  sure  there  will  never  be 
any  now,  and  shall  not  dip  again.  The  charge  is  but  3c. 
each  and  we  are  grateful  to  Secretary  Wilson  for  having 
made  this  dipping  compulsory  and  thus  feasible. 

Homeward  we  rumble  across  Illinois  prairies  and  Indiana 
fields,  burned  to  a  crisp  by  the  long  drouth,  the  yellow  corn 
standing  in  great  fields  on  either  hand.  Riding  much  on  the 
car  roofs  we  study  the  farms  on  either  side.  Few  sheep 
are  seen;  none  that  would  indicate  even  an-  attempt  at 
systematic  sheep  husbandry.  We  think  long  of  the  future— 
and  what  it  has  in  store  for  us.  Are  we  to  learn  how  to 
keep  sheep  in  this  central  country,  or  are  wre  to  continue  to 
lease  it  to  the  western  brothers?  Is  it  a  safe  business  to 
buy  feeders  in  Chicago  and  compete  with  killers  to  rum 
prices  up— up? 

A  method  followed  on  one  of  the  Large  Texan  Ranches  is 
here  shown.  A  and  B  >are  two  large  lots  into  which  the  sheep 
are  gathered  for  dipping,  marking  or  sorting.  A  round,  cen- 
tral pen  (C)  into  which  the  sheep  may  be  driven  from  either 


214 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


of  the  others,  by  means  of  the  three-fold  gate  at  the  end 
of  the  circular  driveway,  or  alley.  The  sheep  are  gathered 
in  the  lot  B,  and  driven  round  inside  of  the  curved  fence 
to  the  dipping  vat,  and  the  dripping  vats  at  F  and  (J.  The 
circular  fence  is  two  hundred  feet  in  diameter  and  will  hold 
two  thousand  sheep.  It  is  easy  to  handle  the  sheep  in  any 
way,  by  the  gates  in  the  alley,  which  is  three  and  a  half  feet 
wide.  The  alley  is  closed  in  the  places  marked,  by  a  sliding 


SLIDING  GATE. 


A  TEXAS  CATCH  PEN  FOR  SORTING 
AND  DIPPING. 

gate,  shown  at  small  figure,  and  will  hold  200  head  or  more. 
By  dropping  the  sliding  gates  this  lot  may  be  divided  into 
four  lots,  each  of  which  may  be  handled  with  ease  for  any 
purpose  desired,  marking,  dipping,  sorting,  or  examining. 
By  using  hurdles  the  part  of  the  circular  pen  below  the 
curved  fence  may  be  closed  in  and  the  gate  at  either  en- 
trance may  be  closed  at  will.  As  soon  as  one  pen  is  emptied 
it  is  filled  again  from  the  next  one,  by  lifting  the  gate  by  a 
cord  running  over  a  pulley,  and  as  fast  as  one  lot  is  done 
with,  the  next  comes  to  hand  without  trouble  or  delay. 
The  rear  pen  D  is  used  for  drying  the  sheep  after  dipping 
them  in  the  vats  and  passing  them  through  to  draining  floor 


BARNS  AND  STABLES.  215 

F  and  G.    The  shearing  floor  and  the  shepherd's  house  are 
in  this  pen  D,  near  the  dipping  vat. 

A  MANITOBA  SHEEP  HOUSE. 

A  Manitoba  farmer  has  solved  the  problem  of  how  to 
dispose  of  the  refuse  of  his  large  wheat  and  oat  crop,  and 
preserve  the  fertility  of  his  land  with  profit.  He,  as  other 
wise  farmers  have  been  doing  for  ages  past  and  are  doing 
to-day,  keeps  sheep  to  consume  the  wastes  of  his  grain 
crops;  the  straw  and  chaff,  and  the  screenings  of  the  wheat 
cleaned  for  sale  together  with  ample  crops  of  oats  and  peas 
grown  together,  and  harvested  when  the  grain  is  merely 
formed,  and  then  ensiloed.  This  feed  is  well  adapted  to 
feeding  sheep  and  no  other  is  required  either  for  mainte- 
nance of  the  flocks  or  for  fattening  those  drafted  out  for 
sale. 

He  has  also  solved  the  problem  of  the  housing  of  the 
sheep,  when  this  is  necessary  or  even  desirable  for  the  wel- 
fare of  the  flocks.  His  houses  are  constructed  in  the  sim- 
plest manner.  They  are  200  feet  long  and  50  wide,  having 
a  feed  trough  on  the  rear  side,  and  cross  feeding  racks  by 
which  the  house  is  divided  into  pens  25x20  feet.  A  passage 
runs  the  whole  length  of  the  house,  and  is  eight  feet  wide. 
The  entrance  gates  to  this  passage  are  made  to  open  out- 
wards, but  only  half  way,  so  that  they  form  an  entrance 
with  sloping  sides  by  which  the  sheep  entering  cannot  choke 
the  way  or  injure  themselves  by  crowding  in  the  sharp 
entrance.  The  passage  way  is  provided  with  gates  which 
are  hung  by  cords  which  go  over  pulleys  on  the  center  posts; 
and  weights  being  attached  to  the  cords  so  as  to  partly  bal- 
ance the  gates,  they  are  lifted  with  ease  by  a  mere  touch 


n  n  I  n  n  I  n  n  I  n  n 


JL6  o     I*' 

PIG.  3.— FRONT  OF  THE  HOUSE. 
For  a  Grain  Farm,  Oat  and  Pea  Silage,  with  grain  for  feed. 

of  the  hand,  and  remain  suspended  until  drawn  down  again. 

By  this  device  each  department  of  the  house  may  be 

closed  and  each  space  of  fifty  by  twenty-five  feet  turned 

into  a  separate  pen,  having  a  door  to  the  outside  where  a 


216 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


large  yard  is  enclosed  by  hurdles,  which  may  bo  moved 
with  ease,  or  one  of  which  being  loosened  forms  a  rotary 
gate.  There  is  room  for  a  thousand  sheep  in  this  house, 
without  crowding  at  the  feed  racks.  Fig.  3  shows  the  front 


\J/ 


2.0       /&       Xo-^ 
FIG.  5.— SLIDING  GATE. 


FIG.  4.— FLOOR  PLAN  WITH  FEED  RACK. 

of  the  house;  fig.  4  is  the  floor  plan;  and  fig.  5  shows  tho 
section  through  the  house  with  the  framing  and  the  passage 
way,  with  the  feed  racks  on  each  side. 

This  passage  is  wide  enough  to  per- 
mit a  wagon  or  sled  to  go  through  with 
a  load  of  fodder,  which  is  distributed 
easily  among  the  feed  racks  with  the 
least  amount  of  labor. 

This  house  is  built  of  posts  set  in  the  ground.  The 
framing  is  all  of  rough  timber,  and  the  roof  and  whole  en- 
closure consists  of  the  common  steel  sheet  roofing.  It  is  fur- 
nished with  tight  gates,  so  that  in  the  heaviest  cold  storms 
it  may  be  entirely  closed  in,  ample  ventilation  being  pro- 
vided for  by  the  long  narrowr  openings  in  the  front  of  each 
gable,  and  others  at  the  back.  The  feed  troughs  are  made 
of  the  steel  sheeting,  nailed  to  common  post  timber,  hewed 
into  the  proper  form.  This  resource  was  made  necessary 
by  the  difficulty  of  getting  sawred  timber,  a<nd  the  hewing 
was  cheaper  than  the  sawring  with  whip  saws. 

The  fundamental  rules  for  success  in  housing  and  hand- 
ling sheep  may  be  repeated  here  for  full  consideration;  so 
that  each  one  concerned,  knowing  his  own  necessities  aim! 
conditions,  may  apply  these  suggestions  to  his  own  indi- 
vidual case.  It  was  once  remarked  by  one  of  the  most  pro- 
found and  successful  teachers  of  mathematics  as  a  rule  for 
his  pupils  (of  whom  the  author  was  one)  that  whenever 
there  was  any  doubt,  one  should  immediately  revert  to  the 
principle  involved  in  the  question.  Everything  in  the  whole 


BARNS  AND  STABLES.  217 

conduct  of  human  affairs  has  its  dilemmas,  and  times,  in 
which  this  going  back  to  the  principles  involved  is  the  secret 
of  success.  So  that  we  may  suggest  these  rules  for  general 
guidance  \vhen  one  is  in  doubt  of  what  is  best  to  be  dome 
in  any  circumstances.  Then  any  man,  with  a  little  thought, 
may  adapt  his  conduct  to  the  conditions  by  which  he  is  con- 
fronted. 

Rule  1.— Sheep  require  to  be  led,  rather  thato  driven. 
They  are  to  be  controlled  by  such  means  that  they  cannot 
help  but  follow  in  the  way  they  should  go. 

Rule  2.— Although  naturally  hardy  they  are  the  weakest 
of  animals  when  misfortune  overtakes  them,  and  their 
natural  stupidity,  or— as  might  doubtless  be  more  correctly 
said— their  inborn  disposition  to  depend  on  their  masters, 
renders  them  an  easy  prey  to  any  unfavorable  conditions. 
This  is  the  inevitable  result  of  their  domestication  from  the 
earliest  ages. 

Rule  3.— Sheep  are  fretful  under  disappointment.  No 
other  animal  is  so  much  disturbed  or  suffers  by  irregularity 
of  management.  Hence  in  all  their  management,  in  feeding 
especially,  th«e  utmost  regularity  is  to  be  observed. 

Rule  4. — Although  it  might  be  thought  that  their  woolly 
coat  is  a  sure  protection  against  cold,  it  is  only  so  in  regard 
to  dry  cold.  Exposure  to  wet,  by  which  the  fleece  is  satu- 
rated, chills  them  severely;  and  this  on  the  most  susceptible 
part,  the  spine.  Hence  the  flock  is  to  be  protected  in  ac- 
cordance. 

Rule  5.— Sheep  are  as  easily  chilled  inside  as  outside. 
Hence  the  water  supplied  to  them  should  be  pure,  and  never 
so  cold  as  to  chill  the  stomach. 

Rule  6.— The  sheep's  fleece  is  of  such  a  nature  that  ex- 
posure to  wet  and  warmth,  or  pressure,  causes  it  to  felt. 
Hence  a  wet  fleece  is  to  be  avoided,  or,  if  it  must  be  so, 
the  sheep  must  not  be  crowded  together. 

Rule  7.--A  sheep  is  subject  to  a  greater  number  of  para- 
sites thaoi  any  other  animal  and  suffers  more  than  others 
from  them.  This  calls  for  suitable  precautions  to  avoid  this 
exposure. 

Rule  8.— The  inborn  dependence  of  sheep  upon  mankind 
calls  for  the  constant  thought  of  the  shepherd  to  study  the 
necessities  of  the  flock  and  to  provide  in  advance  for  them. 


218 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


Rule  9.— This  last  rule  is  to  be  understood  to  apply 
not  only  to  number,  but  to  every  other  condition  of  the 
flock.  "Whenever  the  shepherd  sees  his  sheep  let  him  count 
them."  This  includes  a  close  examination  of  the  condition 
as  well  as  to  the  numbers. 

MR.  J.  E.  WING'S  BARN. 

Economy  is  always  in  order,  and  a  cheap  and  com- 
modious barn  for  a  small  breeding  flock,  designed  by  Mr. 
Wing  is  here  described  and  illustrated.  It  is  a  noteworthy 
commendation  of  this  design  that  it  has  been  adopted  by 
the  Ohio  Experiment  Station. 


Fig.  6.     Fig.  7. 

The  posts,  AA.  are  8  feet  tall,  and  in  my  bam  will  very 
probably  be  round  white  oak  posts,  set  in  the  ground.  They 
will  not  rot  off  in  iny  timf ,  and  when  they  do  my  boy  can 
saw  them  off  and  set  them  on  stones. 

The  posts,  BB,  are  ten  feet  high  above  ground.  This  differ- 
ence in  height  is  made  to  allow  a  driveway  through  the 
building.  This  is  not  necessary  in  all  cases,  and  it  may  be 
that  J.  R.  D.  will  prefer  to  take  in  his  hay  at  the  end  of  the 
barn,  and  have  his  mow  floor  level,  in  which  case  the  posts 
will  all  be  of  the  same  height. 

The  plates,  C  C  D,  are  of  joist,  2x8,  and  are  double,  that 
is.  one  is  notched  in  on  each  side  of  the  post  as  shown  at 
Fig.  6.  These  notches  are  cut  just  deep  enough  to  leave 
4  inches  of  wood  and  of  space  between  the  joists;  the 
braces  then  pass  up  between  the  double  plates  and  are 
firmly  spiked  to  them.  At  the  foot  of  the  braces  the  post 


BARNS  AND  STABLES  219 

is  flattened  and  slightly  notched,  and  the  braces  spiked 
there.  The  plates  on  which  rest  the  rafters  are  made  of  two 
pieces  of  2x8,  spiked  on  as  shown  at  fig.  7.  This  makes  a 
very  strong  and  stiff  plate,  and  is  really  better  than  the 
old  fashioned  mortised  plate  and  many  times  easier  put  on. 

The  rafters  are  in  two  pieces,  splicing  in  the  center,  a 
lap-splice  spiking  together.  They  are  supported  in  the  cen- 
ter by  a  purlin  plate,  F,  which  is  3x10,  and  supported  by  the 
purlin  posts,  E  E.  In  putting  this  up  temporary  braces  will 
be  used  until  the  rafters  are  spiked  in  place,  when  no  fur- 
ther bracing  Is  needed.  This  purlin  does  not  receive  the 
thrust  of  the  rafters  but  merely  supports  the  weight,  the 
thrust  being  held  at  the  plate  below7. 

At  G  there  should  be  a  track  for  a  hay  carrier.  I  prefer 
the  wooden  tracks  of  4x4  and  the  sling  carriers.  The  mow 
•will  hold  about  12  tons  of  hay.  The  floor  is  supported  by 
2x8  joists  spaced  2  feet  apart  over  the  center  and  3  feet 
over  the  side  bents. 

For  roof.ug  I  shall  use  the  best  shingles  that  I  can  get. 
We  have  now  a  good  deal  of  iron  roofing  and  it  is  not  satis- 
factory. It  requires  paint  too  often. 

Siding  may  be  of  oak  or  pine.  Pine  is  better,  unless 
the  oak  has  been  seasoned  without  warping  or  twisting;  it 
should  be  well  nailed  if  used  and  battened.  Plenty  of  doors 
should  be  used,  each  in  two  halves,  the  lower  half  swinging 
ajnd  the  upper  half  raising  like  an  awning,  hung  by  hinges 
at  upper  edge.  Thus  the  sheep  may  have  sun  and  air, 
and  yet  be  kept  in  by  the  closed  lower  door. 

Here  is  a  bill  of  lumber  and  approximate  cost  of  same. 
I  charge  but  $5  per  thousand  for  the  oak,  as  that  is  all  it 
will  cost  in  cash  to  one  having  the  timber: 

8  posts,  8x8  (or  round),  10  feet 427ft. 

8  posts,  8x8  (or  round),  12  feet 512  ft. 

8  posts,  4x8,  8  feet  (purlin) 192ft. 

69  joists,  2x8,  12  feet 1,104  ft. 

6  purlin  plates,  3x10,  12  feet 180  ft. 

34  4x4  girts,  12  feet 544  ft. 

1,120  1  x4  sheeting 1,120  ft. 

1,276  feet  flooring 1,276  ft. 

76  rafters,  2x5x16 .1,013  ft. 

Total  oak 6,368  ft. 

Cost  of  6,368  feet  oak  at  $5  per  M $31.84 

1,800  feet  pine  siding 36.00 

18,000  shingles 46.80 

Nails 5.00 

Labor,  help  about  raising,  etc 15.00 

Total  cash  outlay  needed $134.64 


220 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


hatchet"  carpenter.  It  is  really  nothing  but  a  strong  hay 
scaffold  covered  by  a  roof.  Yet,  if  well  braced  as  shown, 
it  will  be  amply  strong  and  will  last  as  long  as  any  kind  of 
frame,  and  it  can  be  built  by  any  man  able  to  own  a  hun- 
dred sheep.  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  pays  to  shelter  all 
sheep  from  storms  east  of  the  Missouri  Itiver,  and  one  can- 
not afford  to  own  sheep  that  he  cannot  shelter. 

As  to  the  arrangement  of  the  interior,  I  mean  to  devote 
the  central  division  to  the  little  iambs,  giving  them  access 

o\ 


\\\<t 


\o 
ound 


Vamb 


V\OM 


rcfrcVa 


to  it  through  a  creep.  Lambs  are  timid  things,  and  will  not 
thrive  when  obliged  to  struggle  for  their  rations  with  older 
sheep.  They  also  need  a  clean,  dry  place  in  which  to  romp 
and  play  and  lie  and  sleep.  The  only  profitable  lamb  is  the 
happy  one. 

One  side  is  devoted  to  the  ewes  that  have  not  yet  lambed, 
requiring  different  food  and  care  from  those  suckling  their 
lambs,  the  other  to  the  mothers.  It  will  be  well  if  possible 
to  give  each  flock  access  to  a  dry  grass-lot  for  exercise.  If 
but  one  lot  at  hand,  the  ewes  that  have  lambed  will  get  their 
exorcise  in  caring  for  their  lambs.  After  a  large  part  of  the 
ewes  have  lambed,  a  part  of  the  vacant  side  may  be  parti- 
tioned off  and  ewes  and  lambs  put  therein. 

Water  ought  to  be  in  each  part. 


BARNS  AND  STABLES. 


221 


There  is  not  one  mortise  or  tenon  in  this  frame  nor  any 
feature  that  cannot  be  readily  understood  by  any  "saw  and 

Pig.  8  is  an  after  thought,  and 
shows  that  by  making  the  outer 
posts  also  ten  feet  high  the  roof 
will  be  raised  two  feet,  and  the  stor- 
age capacity  of  the  mow  increased 
over  five  tons,  giving  about  17  tons 
about  right  for  a  flock  of  100  ewes  of 
the  mutton  breeds.  The  labor  of  Fig.  8. 

building'with  the  additional  height  will  be  the  same,  and  the 
extra  cost  of  288  feet  of  siding. 

MR.  VESTAL'S  BARN. 

Mr.  W.  B.  Vestal  of  Indiana  gives  us  this  ground  plan 
of  his  barn  which  has  some  excellent  points: 

The  building  is  02x48  feet,  fronts  south,  is  twelve  feet 
at  the  eaves  and  is  27  feet  to  the  hay  carrier,  which  extends 

.<«••••.        ,•**""•* 

LI/  '         ^>±  '  .*  /        '  Iv 


4Sf 


H 


\ 


the  whole  length  of  the  building.  Hay  is  unloaded  from  cen- 
ter driveway;  both  drives  are  14  ft.  wide.  The  center  drive 
is  open  to  the  roof  and  cupola  to  afford  ventilation.  The 
mows  are  8  ft.  high.  The  west  drive  has  floor  over  the 
center,  leaving  a  space  of  14  ft.  at  each  end  open  to  the  roof. 


222  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

Ample  ventilation,  without  draughts,  is  greatly  to  be  de- 
sired in  a  sheep  barn. 

The  hay  racks,  A,  are  built  with  flat  bottom  troughs  in 
front,  to  catch  scraps  of  hay  and  to  feed  grain  in  bad 
weather.  B,  water  trough.  C,  well.  D,  dipping  tub.  E, 
shearing  table.  F,  hospital.  G,  nursery.  H,  feeding  place 
for  lambs,  entered  by  creeps.  K,  closet,  large  enough  to  hold 
all  the  tools  and  instruments  required  about  a  sheep  barn,  so 
that  they  may  be  found  when  wanted.  If  ear  tabs,  worm 
powders,  cordial,  and  some  sheep  dip  are  constantly  kept 
in  stock,  it  wrill  save  both  time  and  sheep.  The  distance  all 
being  the  same,  a  14  ft.  gate,  which  will  lift  off  the  hinges. 
may  be  placed  at  any  desired  point,  to  divide  the  flock  into 
as  many  lots  as  may  be  desired,  and  a  great  many  combina- 
tions may  be  had  with  a  couple  of  light  gates  and  a  little 
thought.  A  gate  placed  in  middle  of  center  drive,  or  at  post 
opposite  hospital  door,  and  one  midway  the  water  trough, 
will  divide  the  room  about  equally  and  allow  both  access  to 
water.  The  top  half  of  the  doors  are  on  rollers,  the  lower  on 
hinges.  The  doors  may  be  fastened  open  and  the  gate  hung 
in  doorway.  This  barn  will  accommodate  125  breeding 
ewes,  and  hay  enough  to  see  them  through.  If  more  storage 
room  is  needed  for  hay,  build  it  higher  and  it  will  look 
better. 

SHEPHERD  DOGS. 

The  Collie  dogs  are  remarkable  for  great  intelligence, 
an"  instinct  which  seems  sometimes  to  surpass  reason;  won- 
derful endurance,  and  activity.  Without  these  dogs,  sheep- 
keeping  in  many  districts,  useful  for  no  other  branch  of 
agriculture,  would  be  impossible.  The  home  of  this  breed  is 
the  Scotch  highlands,  a  locality  of  rocks  and  hills,  inter- 
spersed with  grassy  valleys;  elevated  tablelands  bearing 
scanty  herbage,  and  "moors,"  or  level  or  slightly  undulating 
tracts  covered  with  gorse,  heather,  low  bushes,  boggy  places, 
and  scattered  rocks.  Upon  these  hills  sheep  are  kept  in  large 
flocks,  exposed  from  day  to  day  to  all  the  vicissitudes  of 
storms,  mists,  rains,  and  snows,  with  no  other  shelter  than  is 
afforded  by  the  lee  side  of  abrupt  precipices,  overhanging 
rocks,  stone  walls,  or  in  rough  sheds  of  poles  and  heather. 
Without,  his  dogs  the  shepherd  would  be  helpless  to  manage 
his  flock  in  this  rough  country.  In  countries  where  arable 


224  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

land  bears  a  very  high  price,  only  such  land  as  cannot  be 
plowed  is  given  up  to  sheep  pastures,  and  here  the  dog  is  in- 
valuable; and  not  only  here,  for  he  is  made  useful  upon  the 
more  civilized,  hillsides  of  the  Scotch  lowlands;  upon  the 
grassy  downs  of  England,  the  rich  farms  where  sheep-keep- 
ing is  only  incident  to  high  culture,  and  upon  our  own 
Western  plains.  Everywhere,  where  sheep  are  kept,  a  sheep 
dog  of  some  kind  is  found  useful;  and  of  all  the  different 
varieties  the  Collie  is  considered  the  most  valuable.  He  pos- 
sesses a  rare  instinct  for  his  work,  which  comes  as  a  second 
nature  to  him.  He  often  knows  the  ways  of  sheep  better 
than  his  master,  and  understands  the  signals  of  the  shep- 
herd when  far  out  of  hearing,  with  great  precision.  Cases 
have  been  known  in  which  the  dog  has  discovered  the  ab- 
sence of  some  laggards  of  the  flock  which  his  master  had  not 
missed,  and  has  returned  to  the  pasture  for  them  unbidden. 
He  can  range  his  flock  upon  one  side  of  a  road,  when  meet- 
ing other  sheep,  and  thus  keep  them  from  intermingling  with 
the  strangers.  He  will  discover  by  his  acute  sense  of  smell 
sheep  that  have  been  overwhelmed  in  snow-drifts,  and  will 
conduct  the  shepherd  to  the  place.  If  no  help  is  available, 
he  has  been  known  to  dig  into  the  drift  and  release  impris- 
oned sheep,  and  to  warm  chilled  lambs  by  huddling  close  to 
them.  He  is  valiant  in  their  defence,  and  will  give  battle  to 
a  wolf  without  hesitation.  No  vagrant  dog  will  be  per- 
mitted to  approach  a  flock  of  which  he  has  charge.  He  will 
bring  back  stragglers  when  upon  the  march,  and  will  return 
to  find  sore-footed  ones  that  have  lingered  by  the  way.  For 
a  farm  dog  he  is  of  special  value,  as  he  can  easily  be  trained 
to  manage  with  gentleness  any  kind  of  live-stock.  He  is  do- 
mestic in  his  habits.  While  kind  and  affectionate  to  his 
owner,  and  his  herds,  he  is  watchful  and  suspicious  of  stran- 
gers and  strange  animals.  His  good  disposition  gives  him 
great  influence  over  his  charge,  and  causes  them  to  have 
confidence  in  him.  When  a  flock  is  afraid  of  the  shepherd's 
dog,  it  shows  wrong  management  on  the  part  of  the  shep- 
herd, and  that  the  dog  has  been  badly  trained.  The  Collie 
has  long  and  woolly  hair;  a  bright  mild  eye;  a  sharp  nose; 
an  intelligent  aspect;  a  long  bushy  tail,  curling  upwards, 
with  the  end  clear  of  the  ground;  and  in  color  is  usually 
black  and  tan,  variegated  with  a  little  white.  Not  the  least 


SHEPHERD  DOGS.  225 

wonderful  or  useful  characteristic  of  the  dog  is  his  tenacious 
memory,  by  which  he  is  able  to  remember  all  the  turning 
points  in  a  journey  of  hundreds  of  miles,  and  to  recognize 
at  sight  every  member  of  the  flock  to  which  he  has  become 
attached.  With  all  his  good  qualifications,  however,  he 
sometimes  lapses  from  virtue;  and  no  other  dog  is  so  de- 
structive in  the  fold  as  a  sheep  dog  become  demoralized 
by  bad  companions.  The  Scotch  and  English  shepherds 
set  great  store  by  their  dogs,  and  trials  of  his  sagacity  and 
special  training,  made  at  the  numerous  fairs  are  a  matter 
for  amazement  by  those  not  fully  acquainted  with  his  skill 
in  managing  the  wildest  sheep.  These  competitions  are  excit- 
ing as  well  as  amusing.  We  have  seen  him  engaged  in  driv- 
ing into  a  small  pen,  a  bunch  of  the  wildest  sheep  known, 
doubtless,  the  small  agile  Welsh  mountain  breed  whose 
jumping  abilities  are  amazing.  The  test  of  the  dog's  in- 
genuity and  natural  acuteness  is  made  by  giving  him  half 
a  dozen  of  these  nimble  and  willful  animals,  in  an  open  field, 
to  drive  into  a  pen  with  but  one  narrow  opening.  The  dog 
is  always  the  victor  in  these  matches,  between  the  two  most 
sagacious  of  all  animals.  The  patient  skill  of  the  intelligent 
animal  in  penning  the  sheep,  in  spite  of  their  unwillingness, 
is  worth  crossing  the  ocean  to  see. 

Unfortunately  for  him,  he  is  subject  to  one  of  the  worst 
of  diseases  by  which  he  is  made  a  natural  enemy  of  the 
sheep  he  watches  over  so  well.  This  is  the  tapeworm  of  sev- 
eral species,  which  he  harbors  in  his  intestines,  and  which 
by  one  of  the  most  curious  of  natural  transformations  and 
transmigrations,  pass  from  the  dog  to  the  sheep.  But  it  is 
no  difficult  matter  to  relieve  him  of  this  parasite.  This  is  to 
give  him  at  stated  intervals,  as  is  mentioned  in  the  chapter 
on  diseases  of  the  sheep,  regular  doses  of  worm  medicine, 
keeping  him  shut  in  during  the  operation  of  it,  so  that  the 
worms  he  discharges  may  be  effectually  destroyed. 

The  shepherd's  dog  is  indispensable  to  the  shepherd,  but 
in  procuring  an  animal  it  is  necessary  to  get  one  well  bred, 
and  trained  if  necessary,  or  the  expected  assistant  may  turn 
out  to  be  the  worst  enemy  the  flock  may  encounter.  The 
pure  breed  only  should  be  procured,  for  a  cross  bred  dog 
may  be  really  a  damage  to  the  flock  instead  of  its  friend  and 
protector. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

WOOL:    ITS  HISTORY,  USES,  NATURE, 
CULTURE  AND   DISEASE. 

Wool  is  a  modified  form  of  hair.  It  is  distinguished  from 
hair,  however,  by  certain  special  and  prominent  character- 
istics, while  retaining  to  some  extent  other  properties  which 
are  common  to  the  natural  covering  of  all  animals.  It  has 
precisely  the  same  chemical  composition  a.s  skin,  hair,  and 
the  feathers  of  birds,  having  as  these  have  about  16  per  cent 
of  nitrogen  and  4  per  cent  of  sulphur.  It  is  distinctly  a 
growth  from  the  ski!n,  being  rooted  in  it,  and  drawing  its 
nutriment  from  it,  and  partaking  with  it  in  precise  sympa- 
thy its  prosperity  and  adversity;  growing  luxuriantly,  and  in 
its  best  form,  in  health;  but  equally  suffering  with  it  in 
sickness  and  disease. 


FIG.  1. 

«,  Epidermis,  or  surface  skin,       b,  Dermis,  or  true  skin. 
c,  Fiber  of  wool,  with  its  follicles.       d,  d,  Nutritive  glands. 
e,  e,  Capillary  blood  vessels.       /,/,  Masses  of  fatty  tissue. 
(Magnified  500  diameters.) 

Its  manner  of  grqwth  is  peculiar.  Its  root  is  a  bulb 
which  is  inserted  in  what  is  called  a  follicle  of  the  skin, 
as  shown  in  figure  1.  It  is  not  deeply  planted,  and  is  thus 
subject  to  serious  injury  under  what  might  be  thought  quite 


HISTORY  OF  WOOL.  227 

immaterial  circumstances.  Indeed,  its  sympathetic  action 
is  so  closely  concerned  with  the  condition  of  the  skin,  that  it 
might  be  said  truthfully  that  it  keeps  a  constant  periodical 
record  of  the  daily  changes  in  the  health  or  welfare  of  the 
sheep.  Every  failure  in  the  sheep's  condition  is  marked  by 
a  weak  spot  in  the  fiber  of  the  fleece,  and  when  this  is  at 
all  serious,  these  weak  spots  are  so  considerably  developed 
as  to  weaken  the  fibers  and  cause  them  to  break  easily, 
and  thus  greatly  lessen  the  value  of  the  wool  for  manu- 
factures. 

As  with  many  other  things,  modern  science  disproves  the 
old  belief  that  wool,  as  well  as  hair,  has  the  form  of  a  tube. 
This  was  always  stated  in  the  old  works  on  the  sheep,  and 
its  care  and  management;  but  now  relegated,  by  more  exact 
knowledge,  to  that  heap,  or  waste  pile  of  errors,  which  grad- 
ually accumulates  as  we  learn  more  of  'the  nature  of  things 
through  our  more  exact  scientific  instruments.  The  modern 
process  of  dividing  objects  for  examination  by  improved 
microscopes,  and  by  which  we  can  cut  sections  or  objects  to 
a  thinness  of  the  thousandth  part  of  an  inch  or  less,  and 
magnify  them  a  million  times  with  our  better  knowledge  of 
the  effects  of  light,  has  proved  to  us  that  hair  and  wool  are 
solid  and  not  tubular,  but  that  they  have  a  central  core,  as  it 
were,  which  is  covered  by  a  distinct  epidermis  or  outer  cov- 
ering, smooth  and  brilliant  in  hair,  but  in  wool  serrated  and 
covered  with  scales  having  sharp  entangling  points  or 
hooks,  by  which  the  fibers,  under  certain  conditions,  become 
closely  intertwined  and  entangled,  forming  a  tough,  elastic 
fabric  which  we  know  as  felt;  the  common  material  for 
making  hats.  This  fact  is  not  only  interesting  to  the  shep- 
herd to  know,  but  useful,  as  furnishing  admonition  to  him 
to  avoid  these  conditions  which  are  very  easy  to  occur  in 
the  care  of  a  flock,  by  which  the  wool  undergoes  this  very 
injurious  process  and  is  thus  seriously  reduced  in  value 
to  the  manufacturer. 

But  wool,  while  it  retains  these  normal  relations,  and 
peculiarities,  of  form,  yet  varies  very  much  in  the  different 
breeds  of  wool  bearers.  Indeed,  this  variation  is  so  con- 
siderable, that  it  is  an  indispensable  necessity  for  the  sur- 
vival of  an  enormous  industry  in  manufacturing  wool  frr 
various  kinds  of  clothing,  that  the  culture  of  it,  as  a  special 


228  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

product,  has  become— if  indeed  it  has  not  been  so  even  from 
pre-historic  times — the  chief  object  of  the  shepherd.  And 
this  objective  necessity  of  the  shepherd  has  made  it  indis- 
pensable that  the  professional  breeder— if  he  himself  is  not 
an  expert  in  this  line  of  his  business— must  give  much 
thought  and  study  to  the  nature  and  product  of  the  flocks, 
as  well  as  the  changing  fashions  in  clothing  fabrics  needing 
wool.  And  the  breeder  must  so  develop  needed  changes  in 
the  sheep  as  to  meet  all  the  demands  of  the  manufacturer, 
who  only  reflects  the  tastes  and  fashions  of  the  general  pub- 
lic who  consume  the  goods  he  makes.  The  shepherd  then 
and  thus  is  not  in  precise  control  of  the  world,  but  he  is  the 
servant  and  purveyor  for  it  iii  this  regard,  and  he  must 
keep  in  the  front  as  the  procession  passes  by,  as  may  be  said, 
and  conform  his  movements  to  those  of  the  irresistible  mass 
of  the  public. 

There  was  a  time  when  the  Merino  was  the  only  kind  of 
civilised  domestic  sheep.  It  furnished  the  fine  wools  which 
were  spun  and  woven  by  the  noble  women  of  the  most  an- 
cient times.  For  in  one  of  the  earliest  written  books,  in 
which  we  have  the  history  of  Job,  we  find  the  excellent 
mistress  of  a  noble  household  providing  in  this  way  for 
her  dependants.  So  the  noble  ladies  of  Rome  spun  and  wove 
the  luxuriant  woolen  robes,  and  dyed  them  for  their  hus- 
bands and  fathers  and  brothers  in  the  costly  Syrian  pur- 
ple. And  this  custom  gave  origin  to  our  common  term  for 
unmarried  women,  viz.,  spinsters.  And  to  this  day  the 
Merino— then  the  only  domesticated  sheep — holds  the  front 
place  among  the  wool  bearers  of  the  world,  counting  more 
than  five-sevenths  of  the  whole  number  of  sheep  now  exist- 
ing. But  since  these  ancient  days  the  constant  progress 
in  civilization,  and  practical  comfort  growing  out  of  it, 
has  greatly  varied  the  demand  for  woolen  goods;  and  for 
some  centuries  past  breeders  have  given  their  attention  to 
the  development  of  breeds  of  coarser  wooled  sheep.  Thus 
the  Cotswold— originated  from  a  Spanish  coarse-wooled 
variety— and  the  native  English  sheep,  were  improved  grad- 
ually, until  the  beautiful  Southdown  was"  developed  and  per* 
fected,  and  became  the  progenitor  of  most  of  our  excellent 
short  and  middle  wool  sheep  of  what  are  commonly  known 
ns  the  Down  breeds.  And  so  this  constantly  improved  cul- 


HISTORY  OF  WOOL.  229 

ture  of  the  sheep  continued  with  the  result  of  giving  us  the 
comparatively  large  variety  now  in  the  hands  of  breeders, 
with  the  constantly  increasing  number  of  Hocks  in  the  hands 
of  shepherds. 

It  should  be  noted  right  here,  that  the  chief  object  of  the 
American  shepherd,  as  also  that  of  every  other  civilized 
country,  except  England,  has  been  the  production  of  wool; 
while  that  of  the  English  shepherd  has  been  the  mutton. 
It  has  happened,  however,  that  in  the  pursuit  of  the  best 
mutton  in  the  world  the  English  shepherds  have  brought 
into  existence  an  invaluable  class  of  wool  sheep,  now  more 
than  ever  to  be  considered  because  the  coarser  and  longer 
staple  has  been  generally  adopted  as  the  material  for  cloth- 
ing. And  the  American  shepherd,  once  a  wool  grower  only, 
has  now  to  meet  the  rapidly  increasing  demand  of  the 
most  populous  civilized  nation  in  the  world  for  choice  mut- 
ton, the  most  nutritious  and  pleasant  flesh  food  existing, 
besides  catering  in  the  same  line  for  the  foreign  consumers. 
So  that  we  here  have  two  objects  to  pursue,  each  of  which 
will  tend  to  the  profit  of  American  breeders  and  shepherds. 
And  let  us  here  once  more  remark,  as  a  very  important 
fact,  that  in  this  industry,  based  on  the  sheep  as  a  source  of 
profit,  there  must  be  two  distinct  interests;  that  is  to  say, 
the  shepherd  as  a  producer  of  the  final  products  of  the  sheep; 
and  the  breeder  as  the  source  from  which  must  be  procured 
the  materials  for  the  shepherd  to  work  with.  For  there 
must  be  a  higher  and  more  cultivated  designer  to  prepare 
the  materials  for  the  actual  worker,  which  the  shepherd  is 
and  always  must  be.  And  his  materials  must  be  the  cheap 
sheep  to  supply  the  mutton  aoid  the  wool,  crossed  with  the 
high-bred  and  cultivated,  imlproved  rams,  of  pure  blood, 
constantly  improved  and  varied  as  the  needs  of  the  markets, 
and  also  of  the  shepherds— who  cater  for  the  markets- 
may  call  for.  For  breeding  is  an  exact  science,  to  be  studied 
by  experts,  and  a  costly  business  which  is  above  the  limit  of 
the  ability  of  the  shepherd.  In  time  we  shall  doubtless 
adopt  the  methods  of  the  German  breeders,  who  employ  ex- 
perts to  advise  them  and  help  them  choose  the  materials 
for  reinforcing  their  flecks,  In  regard  to  the  maitateinance 
of  a  necessary  high  standard  of  excellence  in  form,  size, 
quality  of  flesh,  and  value  of  fleece;  not  neglecting  the  neces- 


230  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

sary  constitution  requisite  for  a  breeder.  And  while  the 
breeder  studies  very  carefully  the  form  and  constitution  of 
his  favorite  breed,  he  will  not  act  wisely  if  he  neglects  the 
influence  of  breeding  upon  the  quality  of  the  wool.  For  this 
result  of  cross  breeding  for  variety  of  wool  has  been  found 
exceedingly  effective  in  modifying  the  character  of  the 
fleece  and  adding  to  its  value  for  the  manufacture  of  impor- 
tant varieties  of  fabrics. 

We  cannot  follow  down  the  ages  the  full  history  of  wool. 
It  may  be  sufficient  to  merely  show  how  it  thrived  in  the 
most  a.ncient  times  from  the  very  beginning  of  human  life 
on  the  face  of  the  earth,  accompanying  the  savage  man 
whose  home  was  in  caves,  and  gradually  advancing 
with  him  as  he  approached  civilization,  until  the  first  writ- 
ten history  of  our  race  originated.  Then  we  find  the  an- 
cient sheep-skin  wras  changed  for  clothing  of  wool,  aaid  the 
fleeces  were  a  large  part  of  the  early  merchandise  of  the 
world.  Then  wealth  was  estimated  by  the  numbers  of  the 
flocks,  while  the  sheep  became  the  most  valuable  offering 
that  could  be  made  as  the  sacrifice  to  the  highest  objects  of 
worship. 

As  this  ancient  civilization  advanced,  the  sheep— we  may 
be  sure — was  brought  under  most  careful  cultivation,  and 
wealthy  nobles  of  the  nations  were  noted  for  the  number  of 
their  flocks.  This  advance,  however,  was  lost  to  a  great 
extent  during  that  time  of  anarchy  and  slaughter  which  we 
kno\v  as  the  dark  ages,  in  which,  however,  the  sheep  and  its 
wool  nevertheless  continued  as  a  valuable  possession  and 
necessity  of  life;  for  the  heavy  ransoms  of  captives  made  in 
those  continuous  wars  were  frequently  made  in  sheep  and 
wool,  and  such  merchandise  as  then  existed  consisted  largely 
of  bales  of  wool. 

Indeed,  at  that  period  of  our  race,  we  know  that  the  shep- 
herds seemed  to  control  such  governments  as  could  exist  dur- 
ing such  turbulent  times;  and  the  Shepherd  Kings,  with 
their  shepherd  followers,  led  the  world  for  a  considerable 
time  during  which  a  sort  of  nomadic  life  prevailed.  And  as 
the  dark  ages  passed  the  sheep  survived,  and  when  some 
sort  of  settled  life  became  possible,  it  remained  as  one  of 
the  most  valued  possessions  of  our  race.  Thus  in  course  of 
ages  the  sheep  survived,  in  time  to  become  the  leading  pur- 


NATURE  OF  WOOL.  231 

suit  of  such  permanent  nations  as  were  formed  out  of  the 
remnants  of  governments  which  escaped  extermination,  and 
an  indispensable  accompaniment  of  the  gradually  improving 
civilized  agriculture. 

It  may  be  easily  thought  that  the  most  powerful  com- 
munities settled  as  permanent  nations,  gradually  improve.! 
their  flocks  until  in  more  recent  times  friendly  governments 
—as  an  indication  of  good  will— presented  selected  flocks 
to  others,  who  received  these  gifts  with  avidity  and  exer- 
cised great  care  to  distribute  them  among  the  leading  own- 
ers of  the  cultivated  lands.  It  was  in  this  way  that  the  best 
sheep  of  Spain,  where  it  seems  that  the  flocks  had  been 
most  carefully  preserved  and  improved,  were  distributed 
and  became  the  progeinitors  of  such  breeds  as  our  present 
improved  Merinos,  Cotswolds  and  Southdowns,  which  are 
really  the  original  ancestors  of  all  our  present  existing  varie- 
ties. 

Still  wool  was  the  main  object  of  solicitude,  and  leading 
breeders  gave  the  closest  attention  to  the  improvement  of 
sheep  as  wool  producers.  The  rest  is  a  matter  of  modern 
history,  and  after  all  we  are  still  at  work  in  the  same  line, 
and  shall  doubtless  always  be  so,  for  we  cannot  realize  any 
such  thought  that  the  world  can  ever  exist  as  the  home 
of  civilized  communities  without  the  sheep  as  one,  if  not  the 
first  of  agricultural  pursuits. 

These  being  the  facts  before  us,  it  is  necessarily  the  busi- 
ness of  the  shepherd  to  give  his  attention  to  the  best  man- 
agement of  his  flocks  for  the  wool  product,  to  the  practical 
understanding  of  the  character  of  this  staple,  and  the  best 
means  of  preserving  its  quality  amd  increasing  its  value 
by  the  most  judicious  culture  of  the  sheep. 

THE  NATURE  OF  WOOL. 

The  chief  value  of  wool  depends  on  its  peculiar  char- 
acter, and  its  adaptation  to  the  various  processes  of  manu- 
facture; for  its  usefulness  in  this  respect  depends  on  its 
peculiar  structure. 

A  fiber  of  wool,  when  examined  under  a  powerful  micro- 
scope, is  seen  to  consist  of  three  parts:  first,  a  central  core 
consisting  of  what  is  termed  medullary  substance.  This  is 
a  sort  of  fatty  matter  akin  to  (he  marrow  of  a  bone,  and 


232  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

having  the  property  of  giving  a  softness  and  elasticity  to 
the  fiber  which  is  one  of  the  distinguishing  features  of 
wool.  Over  this  central  core  is  the  second  layer  called  the 
corticle  substance.  This  is  the  fibrous  part  of  the  fiber,  to 
which  its  strength  is  due.  It  contains  the  coloring  matter. 
It  is  really  a  fibrous  thread  and  is  striped  lengthwise.  This 
fiber  grows  from  the  root  which  is  seated  in  the  nutritive 
follicle  in  the  lower  skin.  It  has  such  a  formation  as  gives 
to  it  the  waved  and  spiral  character,  and  causes  it  .to  twist 
easily  and  become  matted  together  under  certain  processes 
known  as  felting.  It  also  enables  it  to  sustain  and  preserve 
the  twist  which  is  given  to  it  in  the  process  of  spinning. 
But  the  most  remarkable  and  special  feature  of  wool  is  its 
outer  covering. 

This  outer  covering  consists  of  pointed  scales,  the  ex- 
tremities of  which  are  sharp.  These  are  arranged  around 
the  fiber  in  spirals. 


PIG.  3.  FIG.  4.  FIG.  5. 


Fig.  2,  Fiber  of  Merino  wool. 

Fig.  3,  Cross  section  through  a  fiber  of  Merino  wool. 
Fig.  4,  Single  fiber  of  Merino  wool.  •      Fig.  5,  Lock  of  Merino  wool. 

Fig.  2.  The  sharp  points  are  more  distinctly  shown  at 
fig.  3,  which  represents  a  fiber  of  wool  cut  down  the 
center.  But  all  kinds  of  wool  are  not  precisely  alike  in  this 
respect.  Fine  wools  as  that  of  any  one  of  the  Merinos,  are 
more  liberally  furnished  with  these  serrations  than  other 
kinds.  In  the  finest  Saxony  wool  these  number  as  many 
as  2,800  to  the  single  inch.  Wool  of  the  finest  Southdown 
has  about  2,000;  and  of  the  Leicester  about  1,800.  The  fins 
wool,  too,  has  a  much  more  wavy  disposition,  as  is  shown  at 
figures  4  and  5.  This  selection  of  illustrations  has  been 
made  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  the  peculiar  property 


NATURE  OF  WOOL.  283 

possessed  by  wools  oi'  this  class,  known  as  felting,  or  adher- 
ing- together  in  a  mass,  by  the  interlacing  of  the  libers  when 
passed  through  a  special  process.  It  also  goes  to  illus- 
trate the  facility  with  which  wool  on  the  sheep's  back  may 
undergo  this  adherent  process  when  it  is  damp,  and  by  rea- 
son of  its  elasticity,  and  the  pressure  due  to  the  sheep  hud- 
dling together,  and  chafing  the  wool  as  well  as  by  the  in- 
fluence of  the  dissolved  yolk— all  these  being  accessory— the 
fleece  felts,  or  as  we  sayv  becomes  cotted.  This  of  course  is 
a  serious  damage;  for  in  the  carding  of  such  wool  it  is  torn 
into  shreds;  even  into  dust  when  it  is  in  bad  condition;  and 
is  worthless  for  any  but  the  lowest  qualities  of  goods. 

But  yet  this  peculiar  character  and  structure  of  wool 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  its  manufacture.  For  when 
it  is  carded  and  torn  into  innumerable  short  lengths,  these  in- 
tertwine, and  when  the  wool  is  spun  it  becomes  aggregated 
into  a  thread  of  great  strength  and  elasticity.  It  is  to  this 
natural  peculiarity  of  fine  wool,  in  excess  of  other  kinds, 
that  it  is  more  highly  valued  for  the  finer  class  of  goods 
which  are  known  as  broad  cloths. 

Moreover  it  is  to  this  peculiar  nature  of  wool  that  it  may 
be  spun  into  such  fine  threads,  that  one  pound  of  the  fin- 
est reaches  a  length  of  very  nearly  one  hundred  miles.  This 
all  goes  to  show  the  necessity  for  every  wool  grower  to 
study  the  final  uses  of  his  products  that  he  may  secure  the 
greatest  profit  in  the  higher  prices  he  may  obtain  for  the 
finest  of  them.  It  is  also  of  interest  to  know  precisely  what 
the  fulling  process  is  that  is  applied  to  the  finishing  of  the 
fine  cloths  made  from  the  best  qualities  of  Merino  fleeces. 

This  process  consists  of  oiling  the  wool,  and  then  spinning 
and  weaving  it  into  the  cloth.  The  cloth  is  then  freed  from 
the  oil  by  steeping  it  in  a  mixture  of  a  fine  sort  of  alkaline 
clay,  known  as  fuller's  earth.  This  Is  followed  by  pressing  the 
cloth,  which  of  course  brings  the  fibers  into  close  proximity, 
and  causes  them  to  mat  together  by  their  sharp  hooked 
scales,  thus  forming  a  firm,  dense  fabric.  Afterwards  being 
torn  on  the  surface  by  a  set  of  teasels  fitted  in  a  frame,  a 
fine  velvety  nap  is  raised  on  the  cloth,  which  retains  the 
glossy  texture  of  the  wool.  Only  the  finest  of  the  Merino 
wools  are  thus  treated.  This  result  of  moisture,  grease,  and 
pressure,  with  some  considerable  warmth,  is  sometimes  ex- 


234  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

perienced  on  the  sheep,  which  are  permitted  to  crowd  in 
close  pens  after  the  fleeces  have  been  soaked  with  rain. 
The  lieece  then  mats  in  spots  to  the  serious  injury  of  it  for 
the  manufacturer's  use. 

The  different  breeds  vary  very  much  in  regard  to  the 
character  of  the  fleece.  The  length  varies  from  one  inch 
in  some  parts  of  the  finest  Saxony  and  French  Merinos,  to 
eight  or  more  inches  in  the  Lincolns.  The  fineness  varies 
as  has  been  mentioned  above.  The  luster  also  differs,  that 
of  the  Lincoln  wool  and  the  best  of  the  Leicester,  being 
much  brighter  than  the  short  wools  or  the  fine  Merino 
fleeces.  The  curl  also  varies  considerably;  that»of  the  Merino 
being  the  most  conspicuous.  The  serrations  are  much  more 
numerous  in  the  finest  wools  while  they  are  far  less  promi- 
nent and  inferior  iin  number  in  the  long  and  more  lustrous 
varieties.  Thus  it  is  that  each  kind  of  wool  has  its  special 
uses  in  manufacturing,  and  as  the  demands  of  the  manufac- 
turers, to  meet  the  necessities  of  the  markets  for  their 
products  are  constantly  changing,  as  the  fashions  change, 
there  is  a  concurrent  demand  for  varieties  of  wools  that  can 
only  be  met  by  cross  breeding,  skillfully  managed  by  intelli- 
gent and  experienced  wool  growers.  This  necessity  for 
increased  varieties  thus  opens  up  a  wide  field  for  the  wool 
grower  in  the  direction  of  breeding  for  some  special  variety 
of  wool,  and  thus  has  to  be  met  by  intelligent  crossing  of 
such  breeds  of  sheep  as  will  meet  the  necessities  of  each 
case. 

CROSS  BREEDING  I^OR  WOOL. 

As  may  be  well  thought  from  the  remarks  in  a  preceding 
chapter  on  breeding  of  sheep,  and  especially  on  cross  breed- 
ing, the  special  breeding  for  variety  of  fleece  must  be  under- 
taken only  by  experts,  to  whom  the  whole  subject  is 
familiar.  That  is,  those  having  a  full  general  acquaintance 
with  not  only  the  history  of  the  breeding  of  sheep  but  also  of 
the  nature  and  varieties  of  wool,  and  as  well  as  of  the  pre- 
potent anility  cf  the- various  breeds  in  regard  to  the  perpetua- 
tion in  this  line  of  their  individual  characteristics.  One  cf  the 
old  breeders  in  his  day  very  truly  remarked,  that  the  sheep 
breeder  works  with  sharp-edged  tools,  with  which  he  may 
very  easily  destroy  his  whole  work  by  a  slip  of  the  hand, 


CROSS  BREEDING  FOR  WOOL.  235 

as  it  were.  This  is  essentially  true,  as  has  been  shown  by 
the  numerous  failures  made  by  inexperienced  breeders  of 
this  most  easily  impressed  animal,  whether  for  good  or  ill. 
And  if  this  be  true,  as  regards  the  sheep  as  a  mere  mutton 
maker,  it  must  be  still  more  so  in  regard  to  it  as  a  wool 
producer.  And  yet  by  following  strictly  along  the  right  line 
of  the  skillful  and  experienced  breeder,  there  is  a  most  im- 
portant work  to  be  done  in  the  variation  and  improvement 
of  the  fleece.  We  know  what  has  been  accomplished  by  the 
skill  of  the  breeders  in  improving  the  carcass  of  the  various 
sheep,  and  in  developing  new  breeds  by  mixture  of  the  new 
breeds  with  the  old  and  inferior  ones;  and  it  is  not  to  be 
doubted  that  equal  improvement  and  variety  in  the  fleece 
may  be  accomplished  in  a  similar  way  by  crossing  for  the 
product  of  new  staples  of  wool  for  the  demands  of  the  manu- 
facturers. The  following  remarks  on  this-  important  sub- 
ject were  published  a  short  time  ago  in  the  columns  of  the 
Country  Gentleman— the  leading  agricultural  journal  in  the 
world— the  editor  of  which  has  very  kindly  and  courteously 
given  permission  for  the  reproduction  of  the  articles  in  this 
volume:* 

"The  future  of  the  wool  industry,  including  both  the 
growth  of  the  staple  and  the  manufacture  of  it,  must  be" 
large  and  continuous.  The  progress  of  civilization  among 
the  hitherto  savage  human  races  will  undoubtedly  be  much 
more  rapid  in  the  future  than  ever  before,  and  the  dark  ages 
of  these  unfortunate  people  are  in  course  of  rapid  removal 
by  means  of  commerce,  and  the  competition  of  powerful 
nations  for  spheres  of  influence  in  the  newly  opened  regions 
of  the  dark  continent.  Of  the  whole  of  our  race,  only  one- 
third  are  really  clothed,  one-third  go  completely  naked,  and 
the  other  third  wear  only  the  modest  breech  clout.  But  of 
the  third  who  are  considered  as  clothed,  fully  three-fourths 
are  only  insufficiently  supplied  with  clothing,  and  luxury  to 
them  in  this  respect  is  a  thing  unknown  and  undreamed  of. 
So  that  an  enormous  growth  of  the  wool  industry  is  in  cer- 
tain sight,  and  all  the  resources  of  the  shepherd  will  soon  be 
taxed  to  supply  these  certain  demands.  History  repeats  it- 
self, and  as  the  dark  ages  of  Europe  and  Asia  have  gone, 
and  comfort  and  luxury,  the  growth  of  peace  and  civilized 
industry,  have  taken  the  place  of  bloody  anarchy  and  pov- 
*These  articles  were  contributed  to  the  Country  Gentleman  by  the  author. 


236  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

erty,  so  the  condition  of  now  savage  races  will  be  in  time 
changed  for  one  of  comparative  civilization  in  which  man- 
kind become  purchasers  of  manufactured  articles,  and  good 
clothing  is  the  second  necessity  of  life. 

NY  hut  does  the  impending  change  mean  to  the  owners 
of  flocks  and  the  manufacturers  .of  woolen  goods?  Nothing  less 
than  a  steadily  increasing  demand  for  wools,  and  that  of 
many  grades  suited  for  all  demands  of  necessity  or  fashion. 
We  must  produce  more  wool,  and  a  greater  variety  of  it, 
and  this  means  an  increase  of  flocks,  and  an  intelligent 
study  of  the  nature  of  the  sheep's  fleece,  and  the  possibility 
of  variation  of  it  by  judicious  crossing,  and  possibly  of  the 
establishment  of  new  breeds  for  this  purpose. 

Wool  is  now  differentiated  by  breed,  and  by  the  parts  of 
the  sheep's  body.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  whole 
body  of  a  sheep  bears  the  same  kind  and  quality  of  wool. 
This  would  be  a  wholly  mistaken  idea,  and  one  that 
would  stand  prominently  in  the  way  of  any  intelligent  con- 
sideration of  this  subject.  And  this  is  one  of  the  most 
important  things  for  the  wool  grower  to  study  when  he  is 
thinking  of  improving  his  wool-bearers.  The  diagram  here 
given  will  represent  the  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  wool 
of  any  one  of  the  Down  breeds,  and  approximately  of  that  in 
a  Merino.  For  the  quality  of  the  fleece  is  yet  dependent  to  a 
large  extent  on  the  form  of  the  frame  even  of  the  most 
highly  bred  Merinos,  and  it  will  be  centuries,  perhaps,  before 
the  most  skillful  breeder  will  be  able,  if  ever,  to  overcome 
the  tendency  to  this  local  variation  in  wool.  Hence  the 
wool-sorter's  occupation  will  still  remain,  until  by  successful 
crossing  and  long  continued  breeding  the  whole  carcass 
may  bear  wool  of  a  high  value  if  this  were  desirable.  That 
it  will  be  desirable  to  the  wool-grower  seems  to  be  certain, 
although  there  is  a  necessity  for  many  grades  for  the  manu- 
facturer. 

The  wool  from  the  center 
of  the  sides,  marked  1  in  the 

illustration    is    of    the    finest       \.      ^          ' ,.../  j 

quality.  At  2  and  3  the  fleece 
becomes  coarser  and  shorter, 
and  as  the  breech  is  ap- 


CROSS   BREEDING   FOR   WOOL.  237 

preached,  at  4,  this  coarseness,  and  length,  too,  are  increased. 
The  most  inferior  part  of  the  fleece  is  011  the  belly  and  brisket, 
as  at  5  and  6,  that  on  the  legs  being  almost  like  hair.  Every 
Merino  breeder  will  know  how  much  has  been  done  with 
that  breed  in  bringing  the  fleece  to  a  more  even  sameness 
of  quality,  for  in  some  of  the  Merinos  the  belly  wool  is 
much  better  than  in  the  Down  breeds,  and  the  leg  wool  is 
wool  down  to  the  hoofs.  This  exemplifies  the  possibility 
that  exists  in  the  improvement  of  sheep  by  successful  cross- 
ing. The  wool  buyer  takes  note  of  this  difference,  and  it  is 
this,  which  he  recognizes  by  feeling  when  he  handles  the 
fleece,  that  causes  him  to  give  a  better  price  for  the  fleeces 
of  one  flock  than  he  will  give  for  others.  This  is  one  of 
the  essential  points  to  be  considered  in  choosing  the  rams 
to  be  used  in  crossing  as  well  as  in  selecting  the  flock  of 
ewes. 

That  cross-bred  sheep  must  be  the  main  dependence  of 
the  wool  grower  is  as  certain  as  an  axiom.  There  is  not  a 
sufficient  supply  of  pure  bred  sheep  to  produce  all  the  wool 
required,  and  there  never  will  be  any  sufficient  uniformity 
in  the  pure  bred  sheep  to  keep  the  staple  of  even  quality. 
Many  breeders  make  many  breeds;  even  of  one  race.  We 
cannot  keep  twenty  flocks  of  any  breed  all  started  alike, 
and  from  the  same  origin,  all  alike  and  without  sensible 
change  for  ten  years,  but  in  that  short  time  these  flocks 
will  exhibit  surprising  differences.  This  is  very  well  known 
to  breeders,  who  must  exercise  the  most  rigid  selection 
to  keep  their  standard  of  excellence  intact.  Thus  the 
slaughter-house  is  one  of  the  absolute  necessities  of  the  suc- 
cessful breeder,  and  as  there  are  weeds  in  flocks  as  in  fields, 
the  weeding  of  the  breeder  is  as  necessary  for  his  success 
as  is  that  of  the  farmer  or  gardener  to  them.  But,  divide  a 
flock  into  twenty,  and  put  these  divisions  into  separate 
hands,  and  all  skilled  to  some  extent,  and  there  will  be  as 
many  different  flocks  in  ten  years.  Thus  the  breeder's  occu- 
pation will  remain,  as  indispensable  to  the  integrity  of  any 
breed,  and  the  wool  grower  will  improve  his  wool  by  cross- 
ing native  sheep  or  grades,  gradually  getting  nearer  to  the 
pure  bred  fleece,  but  never  up  to  it,  by  the  use  of  pure 
bred  rams  selected  judiciously  to  mate  his  ewes. 

These  facts  will  show  the  importance  of  the  wool  grower 


238  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

Laving  an  ideal.  And  also  of  having  such  an  acquaintance 
with  sheep  as  will  enable  him  to  reach  his  objective  point 
most  readily.  The  majority  of  wool  growers  will  not  bo 
breeders,  that  is,  working  skillfully  for  the  creation  of  some 
new  breed  or  strain,  that  will  become  fixed  in  time;  and 
this  for  the  reason  that  we  have  now  as  many  breeds  as  will 
supply  all  demands  for  wool,  and  if  any  new  evolution 
shall  ever  occur  in  the  wool  trade,  this  will  be  so  gradual  that 
it  may  doubtless  be  met  by  a  parallel  change  in  the  product. 
It  is  evident  to  any  one  who  is  in  touch  with  both  these 
depaitments  of  the  wool  business,  that  we  need  to  produce 
more  of  that  class  of  wool  that  comes  from  high  grade 
Merinos  crossed  upon  other  and  coarser  wooled  sheep,  and 
this  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the  finest  of  the  Merino,  with 
the  heavier  fleece  from  the  heavier  carcasses  of  sheep,  that 
will  supply  mutton.  And  for  the  too  numerous  natives,  wo 
want  the  improvement  by  the  Merinos  for  the  supply  of 
these  grades.  And  the  wool  grower  who  has  mastered  all 
the  intricacies  of  his  business  will  purchase  his  grades  and 
the  rams,  and  thus  furnish  a  market  for  the  first  hand  sheep 
—the  improved  natives.  And  this  should  bring  us  to  the 
English  system  of  great  sheep  markets,  where  a  hundred 
thousand  head  or  more  may  be  found  at  the  right  time 
for  the  purposes  of  the  purchaser  in  each  locality  where  this 
business  is  carried  on.  We  have  needed  these  markets,  and 
the  want  of  them  is  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  making  wool 
growing  as  popular  as  it  should  be.  It  cannot  be  doubted 
that  America  is  soon  to  become  the  greatest  sheep  and  wool 
producing  country  of  the  world,  and  with  this  product  of  tbe 
raw  material,  there  must  be  a  corresponding  enlargement 
of  manufacturing.  This  consummation  will  make  necessary 
two  classes  of  shepherds — the  breeders  of  high  grade  sheep, 
and  those  of  pure-bred  rams  for  one;  and  for  the  second  the 
breeders  for  wool  and  mutton  by  crossing. 

Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  his  story  of  the  Black  Dwarf,  rep- 
resents no  doubt  an  actual  occurrence  in  the  conversation 
between  two  Scotch  shepherds  of  his  day,  in  which  both 
agreed  that  "it  was  the  woo'  that  paid  the  rent."  By  which 
it  may  be  understood  that  it  was  the  clear  profit  of  the 
flock,  the  cost  being  paid  by  the  mutton.  And  the  same  may 
be  said  to-day. 


CROSS   BREEDING   FOR  WOOL.  239 

This  is  consistent  with  reason,  if  we  had  not  the  experi- 
ence of  2,000  years  to  support  this  common  belief.  Wool  is 
a  product  of  human  ingenuity  and  skill.  The  sheep  is  a  gift 
of  nature  as  the  wild  fruits  are,  but  the  fleece  is  the  result 
of  culture,  as  are  the  sweet  and  luscious  fruits-  produced 
by  the  art  of  the  grower.  And  it  is  all  the  more  easy  to 
effect  whatever  pu^>ose  may  be  desired  in  this  way  because 
of  the  plastic  nature  of  this  most  easily  influenced  animal. 
One  of  the  most  prominent  sheep-breeders  of  England  once 
said:  "You  may  chalk  out  upon  a  wall  a  perfect  form  of  a 
sheep  and  then  go  to  work  and  give  it  existence  by  means 
of  breeding  and  culture."  The  same  is  equally  applicable 
to  the  fleece  as  to  the  mere  animal  frame.  Every  existing 
breed  of  sheep  has  been  differentiated  from  the  wild  races 
by  human  agency.  More  than  2,000  years  ago  the  fine  fleece 
of  the  Merino  was  evolved  by  the  painstaking  culture  of  the 
wealthy  Roman  proprietors  of  'Spanish  lands",  from  a  native 
race  theretofore  unheard  of.  But  the  demands  of  wealth 
and  luxury  gave  the  impetus,  to  which  the  products  of  the 
Ilcman  matron's  distaff  and  looms  soon  became  accessory, 
by  which  the  luxurious  imperial  robes  and  soft  attire  of  the 
Roman  ladies  were  derived  from  the  ancient  Merinos  of 
conquered  Spain.  And  from  that  day  to  this  the  plastic  na- 
ture of  the  sheep  has  enabled  the  breeders  from  their  chalked- 
G-ut  patterns  to  bring  into  existence  the  Electoral  race 
of  Germany;  the  Naz  sheep  of  France  with  their  exquisitely 
fine  fleeces  only  24  ounces  in  weight,  and  an  inch  or  less  in 
length  of  fiber;  as  wrell  as  the  largest  of  its  kind— the  French 
Rambouillet— with  its  30-lb.  fleece  of  wool  5  inches  long. 
And  between  these  comes  the  American  Merino,  the  best  sheep 
of  its  kind  in  the  world,  as  the  product  of  the  best  mind  and 
skill  in  the  world,  for  in  this  no  other  country  surpasses  ours, 
and  this  sheep  has  gene  wherever  Merinos  are  bred  for  the 
improvement  of  other  related  races. 

Thus  I  hazard  the  statement,  the  result  of  long  experi- 
ence, and  study  of  the  sheep,  and  from  the  laws  of  breeding 
that  are  accepted  by  all  breeders,  that  the  Merino  must  take 
the  first  place  in  the  crossing  of  all  inferior  breeds  for  the 
production  of  the  best  wools  for  the  staple  manufactures 
that  come  between  the  long  coarse,  and  the  short  fine, 
fleeces,  and  for  which  the  demand  is  now  greater  than  ever 


240  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

and  promises  so  to  continue.  The  more  than  2,000  years 
of  successive  breeding  gives  to  this  sheep  the  greatest  pre- 
potency, and  thus  the  males  have  always  been  found  to 
exert  the  most  conspicuous  effect  upon  other  sheep  bred  to 
them.  The  wool,  too,  is  so  firmly  established  in  its  char- 
acter that  the  produce  of  a  cross  has  from  the  first  a  close 
resemblance  to  the  wool  of  the  sire,  an^after  two  or  three 
crosses  it  becomes  to  all  purposes  a  Merino  wool.  But  for 
the  improvement  of  the  coarser-wooled  sheep  the  selection 
of  the  rams  is  the  most  important  matter  to  consider.  We 
must  here  revert  to  the  principle  involved  for  a  rule  oi'  prac- 
tice. It  is  really  a  scientific,  almost  a  mathematical  problem, 
as  thus:  given  a  certain  value  to  be  decreased  in  quantity 
by  division  or  subtraction,  then  the  larger  the  value  of  this 
quantity  and  the  less  that  of  the  other  to  be  taken  from  it 
the  greater  the  value  of  the  remainder.  The  Merino  ram  has 
greatest  natural  force,  due  to  its  long  inheritance,  while  the 
ewes  chosen  have  less  but  a  greater  natural  susceptibility. 
For  instance  in  all  improved  breeding  of  whatever  animals 
we  do  not  put  a  thoroughbred  dam  to  a  scrub  sire,  but  the 
reverse,  and  in  six  such  crosses  we  think  we  have  a  progeny 
in  all  material  respects  equal,  except  for  breeding,  to  the 
sires.  It  is  the  progeny  of  the  pure  bull  and  the  common 
cow  that  makes  the  valuable  grade  for  the  dairy  or  the 
butcher,  but  no  one  thinks  of  reversing  this  method  except 
when  the  breeder  of  sheep,  wanting  to  refine  the  fleece,  does 
this,  and  makes  the  coarse  wool  the  top  cross  and  makes  a 
certain  failure.  For  in  most  of  the  efforts  to  make  a  cross- 
bred sheep  the  larger  coarse-wooled  ram  has  been  put  to 
the  Merino  instead  of  reversing  this,  and  getting  the  prepo- 
tent effect  just  in  the  line  desired. 

The  Merino  has  the  fine  fleece,  and  the  weight  of  it.  It 
has  the  extreme  hardiness;  rams  of  this  breed  have  lived 
and  served  in  the  flock  to  the  age  of  26  years.  The  writer 
had  one  13  years,  when  it  fell  a  victim  to  the  wandering  cur. 
And  it  had  the  potency  of  its  lineage.  Hence  for  the  im- 
provement of  wool  with  any  kind  of  ewes  it  may  be  the  first 
choice.  Doubtless  the  cause  of  most  of  the  failures  in  at- 
tempts at  crossing  with  this  breed  has  been  the  mistake  of 
making  this  strong  breed  the  under  cross.  Such  a  failure 
was  made  by  a  French  breeder  with  the  Merino  crossed  by 


CROSS   BREEDING  FOR  WOOL.  241 

the  Leicester,  but  the  error  was  quickly  discovered  and  rec- 
tified. The  produce  was  an  animal  as  small  as  the  Merino, 
and  having  a  light,  open  fleece,  short  like  the  dam's. 
It  was  wrong  both  ways,  as  might  have  been  expected. 
The  small  dam  brought  a  small  lamb,  and  the  loose  fleece  of 
the  ram  only  lightened  without  lengthening  that  of  the  cross. 
But  on  reversing  the  method  an  excellent  cross  was  pro- 
cured, having  a  10-lb.  fleece  as  fine  as  that  of  the  sire,  and 
a  lamb  that  at  two  years  old  made  a,s  much  weight  as  the 
Merino  at  three  years. 

The  cross  of  the  mutton  breeds  on  the  Merino  has  been 
productive  of  weakness  in  the  offspring.  Its  effect  is  to 
lengthen  the  staple  without  increasing  its  density,  and  the 
want  of  constitution  spoiled  the  sheep  itself.  But  the  re- 
verse cross  has  been  all  the  other  way.  This  will  be  better 
shown  in  the  next  article  when  illustrations  of  cross-bred 
wool  will  be  given.  Density  in  the  fleece  is  necessary  for 
protection  from  stress  of  weather,  and  from  excess  of  dirt; 
it  also  gives  the  weight  desired.  The  Merino  also  confers 
the  yolkiness  upon  the  fleece,  which  is  one  valuable  agent 
for  the  protection  of  the  wool  in  every  way.  Thus  it  has 
been  found  that  the  most  wrinkly  and  yolky  of  the  large 
Merinos  make  the  best  cross  on  the  Downs  and  the  long- 
wools.  And  this  is  the  more  reasonable  because  these 
wrinkled  sheep  are  the  possessors  of  the  naturally  strong 
constitution  of  the  race,  and  have  not  been  bred  down  to 
secure  a  change  of  natural  character. 

The  large  Merino  then  is  also  the  ram  for  improving  the 
common  native  ewe.  It  may  be  quite  possible  that  a  first 
cross  of  the  smaller  Merino  might  be  better  as  a  start  for 
this  purpose,  but  so  far,  excellent  results  have  been  gained 
by  this  cross.  This  cross  will  then  be  continued,  for  there  is 
nothjng  in  the  dam  worth  perpetuating,  and  the  high  grade 
will  be  kept  as  a  permanent  flock,  but  always  with  a  pure 
ram  for  its  leader. 

In  all  the  pursuits  of  life,  whether  intellectual,  mechan- 
ical or  industrial,  each  person  must  have  an  ideal  which  is  to 
be  the  ultimate  object  in  view,  and  for  the  attainment  of 
which  the  nature  and  variations  of  this  ideal  are  to  be 
clearly  understood.  Thus  the  sheep  breeder,  whether  his 
object  may  be  the  carcass  for  mutton,  or  the  fleece  for  wool, 


242 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


must  chalk  out,  so  to  speak,  the  ideal  before  him,  and  then 
devote  every  effort  to  attain  this  end.  The  wool  grower 
must  then  know  something  about  the  nature  of  his  product, 
its  special  character,  its  differentiations  under  varying  cir- 
cumstances, and  as  well  the  needs  of  the  manufacturer  of 
his  staple,  and  the  results  upon  the  quality  of  it  of  mistakes 
or  accidents  in  the  management  of  the  flocks. 

Heretofore  the  precise  nature  of  wool  has  been  only 
superficially  or  erroneously  described  in  the  books  that  have 
been  taken  as  authorities.  It  is  only  necessary  to  examine 
the  various  illustrations  given  in  such  pretentious  works 
as  the  encyclopedias,  to  perceive  how  little  has  been  known, 


FIG.  6.— Outer  scales 
of  wool. 


through  what  might  be  called  popular  science,  of  the  char- 
acter of  wool;  and  as  far  as  the  possibility  of  a  breeder 
of  sheep  or  a  wool  grower  getting  any  fair  notion  of  what 
wool  is,  the  student  might  as  well  examine  the  structure  of  a 
rope  or  a  chain  cable,  to  get  an  idea  of  that  of  a  silk  ribbon. 
The  regular  and  methodically-placed  imbrications  upon  the 
fiber,  alternating  equally  like  shingles  on  a  roof,  are  mere 
creations  of  the  imagination,  due  to  imperfect  study  of  the 
fiber  under  an  inferior  microscope,  that  is  inexcusable  in 
any  modern  work.  Instead  of  this  regularity  of  position 
and  consistency  of  form  in  these  imbrications,  there  is  a 
great  variation  in  both  respects,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 


CROSS   BREEDING    FOR   WOOL. 


243 


accompanying  drawings,  of  which  fig.  6  represents  the 
scales  on  the  outside  of  the  fiber,  fig.  7  the  cross  section 
of  the  fiber,  fig.  8  the  greatly  magnified  cross  section  of  the 
interior  fibers  with  the  outer  scales;  fig.  9  a  fiber  of  Merino, 
and  fig.  10  one  of  Cotswold  wool. 

The  epithelial  scales  (fig.  6)  are  seen  to  be  exceedingly 
irregular  in  shape,  and  being  laid  around  the  wool,  they 
give  the  appearance  to  it  as  shown  at  figs.  9  and  10.  In 
the  drawing  of  Merino  wool,  the  longitudinal  fibers  which 
are  seen  endwise  in  figs.  7  and  8  are  to  be  seen,  and  in 
fig.  10  is  shown  the  dark  pigmentary  matter  that  is  a 
special  mark  of  the  Cotswold  fleece,  and  which  will  be  more 
particularly  mentioned  hereafter  as  having  a  special  refer- 
ence to  the  detection  of  Cotswold  blood  in  various  cross-bred 
sheep  having  more  or  less  of  this  blood  in  them. 


FIG.  7.— Cross      FIG.  8.— Cross  sec- 
section  of  fibers,     tion  magnified. 


Fio.  9.— Fiber  of 
Merino  wool. 


FIG.  10. 


The  character  of  wools  of  different  breeds  varies  greatly 
—so  much  so  that  by  a  careful  study  of  them,  and  some  prac- 
tical experience,  the  breeder  may  gather  much  information 
as  to  the  purity  of  his  flock,  and  with  what  breed  it  may 
have  been  mixed.  And  this  special  characteristic  of  the  fiber 
is  easily  seen  to  be  a  most  important  element  in  this  study 
of  cross-breeding,  for  the  quality  of  the  fleece  is  everything 
to  the  manufacturer,  and  equally  so  to  the  wool  grower  who 
sells  his  fleeces  to  him  for  what  they  are  worth  as  a  staple 
for  the  goods  made,  and  as  well,  it  may  be  said,  as  to  the 
healthful  and  perfect  growth  of  the  staple.  This  is  also  very 
important.  At  fig.  6  is  shown  a  fiber  of  Southdown  wool  that 
is  imperfect  by  reason  of  some  defect  in  the  condition  of  the 


244  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

sheep.  Wool  grows  from  the  skin.  Every  day  the  tip  of  the 
fiber  is  pushed  higher  from  its  base  by  the  daily  growth.  Its 
substance  is  derived  directly  from  the  skin,  certain  secre- 
tions from  it  supplying  the  bulb  or  root  of  the  fiber,  that  is 
imbedded  in  what  are  known  as  the  hair  (and  of  course 
wool)  follicles  (see  fig.  1).  The  precise  nature  of  wool 
may  be  learned  from  these  figures: 

, Composition  of , 

Skin.     Wool.     Hair      Horn. 

Carbon ....5099        50.65       51.53       51.99 

Hydrogen 707         7.03         6.69         6.72 

Nitrogen 18.72        17.71        17.94        17.28 

Oxygen  and  sulphur 23.22       24.61       23.84       24.01 

As  nothing  comes  of  nothing,  and  everything  in  the 
'  world  is  made  up  of  elements  that  must  be  supplied  to  it  for 
its  growth,  so  with  wool.  If  any  part  of  its  elements  are 
wanting  in  the  food,  or  is  diverted  by  reason  of  some  special 
disorder  of  the  sheep  from  the  nutrition  of  the  skin,  and 
from  this,  of  the  wool,  there  is  a  weak  spot.  The  fiber  is 
thin  and  defective  in  strength.  If  the  food  is  in  excess  at 
any  time,  and  production  of  blood  is  increased,  the  opposite 
condition  prevails— for  a  time  only,  for  excitement  from 
whatever  cause  is  sure  to  be  followed  by  a  corresponding 
relapse,  and  in  such  a  case  we  find  first  a  thickened  fiber, 
followed  by  a  thin  and  weak  one.  This  may  be  for  a  short 
time  only,  as  is  seen  in  that  part  of  the  fiber  on  the  left, 
while  on  the  right  there  is  an  indication  of  some  lengthened 
disturbance  of  the  condition. 

Wool  is  differentiated  more  especially  by  its  serrated  c.r 
imbricated  surface,  its  length  and  fineness;  and  in  the  Merino 
by  its  peculiar  waviness  or  crimp.  And  in  these  respects  the 
different  breeds  vary  so  considerably  that  the  expert  shepherd 
or  wool  grower,  as  well  as  the  wool-sorter  and  manufacturer, 
may  be  able  with  ease  to  distinguish  the  fleece  of  each  breed. 
The  biologist  may  even  trace  the  mixture  of  blood  far  away 
back  by  these  special  peculiarities,  and  thus  it  is  most  im- 
portant for  the  breeder  to  study  this  matter  with  care, 
and  examine  samples  from  his  flock  under  some  good  micro- 
scope. It  is  even  possible 'to  distinguish  in  the  wool  of  any 
pure-bred  sheep  the  marks  of  any  ancestor  that  might  have 
had  some  special  individual  characteristic  in  this  respect. 
This  part  of  this  interesting  subject  will  be  more  fully  dis- 


CROSS   BREEDING   FOR  WOOL.  245 

cussed  and  illustrated  in  the  next  and  concluding  articles  of 
this  series. 

Here  we  want  to  consider  what  the  wool  is,  chiefly.  The 
scales  of  which  the  outer  part  of  the  wool  is  made  up, 
may  be  compared  to  those  of  a  fish  in  the  general  manner 
of  their  position  on  the  fiber.  They  all  lie  in  one  direction 
from  the  root  of  the  fiber  upwards,  as  the  scales  lie  from 
the  head  to  the  tail  of  the  fish;  so  that  if  one  draws  a  lock 
of  wool  through  the  fingers,  from  the  root  end  upward,  the 
fibers  slip  smoothly  through  them.  But  if  the  wool  is  drawn 
from  the  tip  to  the  root,  the  harshness  and  roughness  is  quite 
perceptible.  These  serrations  are  exceedingly  small.  In  the 
finest  Merino  ^Saxony)  they  number  2,800  to  an  inch;  in  the 
Leicester— as  we  shall  see  in  time,  it  most  closely  resembles 
the  Merino  in  the  character  of  its  fleece— these  serrations  are 
about  1,800  to  the  inch.  These  numbers  refer  to  the  points 
presented  by  the  scales  all  around  the  fiber,  and  not  to  the 
margins  of  the  individual  scales,  as  shown  in  these  illustra- 
tions, in  which  only  the  bordering  lines  are  really  shown. 
The  coarser  wools  may  have  no  more  than  500  serrations  to 
the  inch. 

The  diameter  of  the  finest  Saxony  fiber  is  from  1,500  to 
1,800  to  an  inch.  An  average  Merino  fleece  will  be  one 
750th  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Coarse  carpet  wool  is  about  one 
250th  of  an  inch.  This  special  fineness  of  the  fiber,  its  ser- 
rated edge  and  crimp,  are  easily  seen  to  have  much  to  do  with 
its  value  to  the  manufacturer,  who  may  make  of  it  the  finest, 
softest  and  lightest  goods.  And  as  the  Merino  fleece  may  be 
taken  as  the  basis  of  computation  of  value  and  fitness  for 
use  of  all  other  wools,  it  may  be  readily  perceived  how  the 
peculiarity  of  its  wool  may  be  graded  down  by  judicious 
crossing  so  as  to  meet  every  need  of  the  manufacturer  for 
the  largest  variety  of  staples. 

Had  the  manufacturer  of  the  finest  or  the  coarsest  cloth- 
ing fabrics,  with  all  the  experience,  skill  and  ingenuity  that 
the  most  accomplished  could  possess,  set  himself  to  invent  a 
fiber  just  suited  to  his  needs,  he  could  scarcely  have  pro- 
cured one  that  meets  every  want  so  well  as  wool,  with  all 
its  points  of  adaptability,  excellence  and  variability.  And 
the  wool-grower  must  perceive  all  this  and  guide  himself 
in  accordance  with  his  knowledge  in  the  pursuit  of  his  indns- 


24G  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

try  as  a  purveyor  and  producer  to  the  manufacturer,  so  as  to 
make  available  all  these  necessary  points,  of  adaptability 
for  the  varied  uses  of  his  product. 


o 
oo 


0         0  © 

FIG.  11.—  Southdown.       Merino.  FIG.  12.—  Leicester 

Wool  is  generally  of  two  classes  —  fine,  short  and  carding 
wool,  and  long,  coarse  and  combing  wool.  This  distinction 
used  to  be  more  strict  some  years  ago  when  Merino  wools 
could  not  be  combed,  as  some  are  now  by  improvements  in 
machinery.  But  it  still  prevails,  only  the  longer-wooled  De- 
laine or  French  Merino  is  classed  with  the  combing  wools 
because  of  its  longer  fiber.  The  Merino  and  the  Southdown 
represent  the  short-wool  class,  while  the  Leicester,  Cots- 
wold  and  Lincoln  are  types  of  the  long  wools,  and  the 
Shropshire,  Hampshire  and  Oxford  come  between  these  two 
as  middle  wools. 

Each  of  these  breeds  has  its  special  peculiarity  to  be 
studied  for  its  own  uses  and  value,  and  also  for  its  udapta- 


FIG.  13.—  Lincoln.  Cotswold.  Oxford. 

bility  for  crossing.  It  is  a  maxim  among  breeders  that  easy 
steps  are  more  satisfactory  than  jumps  in  the  union  of 
breeds,  and  the  more  nearly  the  two  varieties  approach  each 
other  in  character  the  better  they  "nick"  together.  Violent 
crosses  are  rarely  satisfactory.  In  studying  the  three  groups 


CROSS   BREEDING   FOR  WOOL.  247 

of  wools  by  their  cross  sections,  as  shown  in  figs.  11,  12  and 
13,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  nearer  approach  between 
11  and  12  than  between  those  in  group  13,  and  that  the  Lei- 
cester and  Southdown  yary  but  little  in  the  fiber  from  the 
Merino.  It  may  be  said  here  that  in  cross  breeding  these 
more  closely  related  breeds  have  been  mixed  with  far  greater 
advantage  than  the  more  unlike  breeds.  And  the  Merino- 
Leicester  alike  in  fineness  of  fiber  and  nearly  approaching  in 
other  respects,  has  made  the  best  of  all  the  crosses  that  have 
been  attempted  between  the  short  and  loug-wooled  sheep. 

So,  too,  it  may  be  pointed  out  at  this  time,  lest  it  may  not 
be  fully  regarded  hereafter,  that  the  effect  of  the  Cotswold 
on  those  other  breeds  upon  which  it  has  been  crossed  for 
some  special  object  other  than  the  fleece,  has  left  its  most  dis- 
tinguishing mark  upon  the  other  breeds,  by  its  "dash  of 
blood,"  as  it  is  termed  in  the  conspicuous  central  pigment 
cells  that  were  originally  a  distinct  mark  of  this  most  potent- 
blooded  breed,  and  which  to-day  is  so  special  a  peculiarity 
of  its  fleece,  as  to  mark  the  trace  of  its  blood  in  all  the 
breeds  with  which  it  has  been  mixed,  and  as  a  detector  of 
impurity  in  their  blood. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  discussion  we  may  assume  that 
there  are  only  four  really  pure  breeds  of  sheep  concerned 
in  the  production  of  our  present  varieties.  These  are  the 
Merino,  which  merits  the  distinction  of  being  the  oldest 
race  in  existence;  the  Cotswold,  which  comes  next;  the 
Southdown  and  the  old  Hampshire.  These  are  all  worthy 
of  distinction  because  they  have  been  the  origin  of  all  our 
present  breeds.  Perhaps  we  may  leave  out  of  this  category 
the  Merino,  which  stands  alone  as  a  special  breed  that  has 
held  a  singular  place  in  the  world  as  the  most  valuable  wool 
producer  at  any  age,  and  is  destined  so  to  remain,  except  as 
in  the  future  we  may  find  it  to  be  of  the  greatest  value  in 
the  improvement  of  other  sheep  for  the  production  of  what 
may  come  to  be  called  cross-bred  wools. 

Then  we  shall  have  the  above  mentioned  three  breeds, 
and  possibly  the  old  Lincoln  (as  the  origin  of  the  Leicester) 
might  be  thought  to  deserve  a  place  and  make  out  an  even 
four,  excluding  the  Merino.  Every  one  of  these  has  under- 
gone such  a  course  of  improvement  as  to  be  wholly  remod- 
eled. This  change  has  been  due  to  mixture  of  new  blood 


248 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


to  some  extent,  but  mostly  to  the  most  skillful  selection 
by  the  old  breeders,  who  built  up  our  finest  races  of  cattle 
as  well  as  these  sheep.  And  the  prepotency  of  these  original 
breeds  is  shown  by  the  comparison  of  the  wool,  and  by  trac- 
ing how  the  peculiar  character  of  the  fleeces  has  survived 
in  the  improved  races.  This  evidence  will  show  how  it  is  by 
the  fleece  that  may  be  traced  the  lineage  of  the  newer 
breeds,  and  also  give  reason  to  believe  that  quite  as  great 
victories  in  this  pursuit  may  yet  remain  to  be  achieved. 

Attention  is  directed  to  the  drawings  of  the  wools  named. 
The  fibers  have  been  magnified  310  diameters.  The  size  of 
each  is  the  average— some  fibers  may  vary  as  much  as  25 
per  cent  either  way.  They  may  thus  average  about  l-650th 
to  l-800th  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  come  under  the 
category  of  coarse  wools.  We  may  trace  in  these  first  the 
effect  of  the  Southdown  upon  the  old  Hampshire,  and  per- 
ceive distinctly  how  the  smoothness  of  the  scales  has  modi- 


FIG.  14. 
Old  Hampshire. 


FIG.  20. 

Southdown. 


FIG.  21.     FIG.  15.— New  FIG.  16. 
Cotswold.     Hampshire.    Oxford. 


fied  the  uneven  and  ill-formed  epithelium  of  the  old  Hamp- 
shire, which  we  know  was  a  large,  bony,  big-headed,  coarse- 
wooled  sheep  that  was  fed  by  the  Romans  in  Britain  twenty 
centuries  ago,  and  whose  wool  supplied  the  first  factory 
erected  by  them,  and  worked  on  English  soil.  Looking  at 
the  fiber  we  can  easily  imagine  what  kind  of  a  sheep  this 
was;  that  it  was  not  fed  as  well  as  the  modern  sheep,  and 
thus  the  fiber  was  uneven  in  diameter,  and  rough  and  harsh 
and  crowded  in  length. 

In  the  study  of  the  effects  of  crossing  sheep  for  variety 
of  wool  we  may  take  as  the  most  prominent  examples  these 
two  modem  breeds,  the  Hampshire  and  the  Oxford,  two 
kinds  of  sheep  classed  among  the  so-called  Down  breeds. 
The  former  originated  in  a  cross  of  a  native  white-faced, 
horned  sheep  kept  in  the  district  around  the  county  of  Hamp- 
shire in  the  south  of  England  by  a  pure  Southdown.  This 


CROSS  BREEDING   FOR  WOOL.  249 

cross  is  an  example  of  what  has  been  previously  mentioned 
in  a  former  article,  viz.,  the  prepotency  of  the  pure  and 
standard  bred  ram  upon  the  ewe,  for  in  this  cross  breed 
we  find  the  white  face  and  the  thin  fleece  and  the  horns, 
as  well  as  the  ewe,  changed  for  the  black  face,  the  close 
fleece,  and  the  bare  forehead  of  the  improved  race,  nowr,  by 
close  breeding,  having  these  points  fixed  and  making  a  per- 
manent characteristic  of  this  breed,  the  new  Hampshire. 
The  drawings  of  the  wools  of  the  three  breeds  from  which 
these  two  have  been  produced  will  show  very  clearly,  as 
clear  in  fact  as  the  form  and  appearance  of  the  animals 
themselves  do,  how  the  iniiuence  of  the  ram  has  been  exerted 
upon  the  fleece. 

If  we  study  the  make-up  of  the  pure  Southdown  wool 
and  then  that  of  the  old  Hampshire  sheep,  whose  fleece  was 
coarse  and  uneven  in  its  fiber,  and  compare  these  with 
that  of  the  new  Hampshire,  we  can  trace  easily  the  mixture 
of  the  two  bloods  in  the  variation  of  the  fiber;  how  it  has  be- 
come even,  finer,  and  how  it  shows  the  half-way  appearance 
of  the  imbrications  between  the  two.  Then  comparing  the 
last  two,  the  Cotswold  and  the  Oxford,  we  find  distinctly 
the  Oxford  fleece  to  be  equally  affected  by  the  influence  of 
the  more  vigorous  blood  of  the  older  breed  in  the  same  half- 
way appearance  of  the  imbrications  on  the  fiber  and  in  the 
fineness  of  it.  And  in  every  instance  we  find  these  same  re- 
sults when  the  older  and  prepotent  breed,  because  of  its 
longer  line  of  breeding,  has  been  crossed  on  any  other  one. 
At  the  same  time  the  under  cross  has  always  given  its 
greater  weight  of  fleece  to  the  half-bred  progeny. 

Thus  it  is  that  this  cross  breeding  is  no  haphazard  busi- 
ness, but  is  a  truly  scientific  operation,  needing  two  or  more 
elements  in  it,  each  of  which  is  to  be  chosen  advisedly,  and 
with  a  distinct  purpose,  as  indeed  all  breeding  must  be  to  be 
successful.  One  may  as  well  expect  to  hit  a  mark  with  a 
rifle  with  his  eyes  shut  as  to  try  to  effect  any  useful  purpose 
in  whatever  line  of  breeding  he  may  undertake  without  he 
first  takes  the  pains  to  fix  the  purpose  of  the  breeding,  and 
then  selects  the  materials  with  some  well-defined  view  of 
what  he  is  attempting  to  produce.  Even  then  there  may  be 
disappointment,  for  it  is  not  every  animal  in  any  specified 
breed  that  is  sure  to  meet  the  hopes  and  expectations  of  the 


250  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

breeder,  and  thus  it  is  that  there  must  be  many  failures  to 
be  disposed  of  and  continual  study  and  comparison  of  results 
before  a  satisfactory  result  may  be  attained.  It  is  a  life- 
work  rather  than  a  chance,  and  the  assistance  of  the  manu- 
facturer who  needs  the  wool  for  his  special  purpose  should 
always  be  given  in  the  work.  The  wool  grower  and  the 
manufacturer  should  therefore  be  in  close  communication, 
and  this  not  only  in  the  distinct  line  of  cross  breeding,  but 
•as  well  in  originating  and  carrying  into  execution  the  union 
of  breeds,  or  individuals  of  the  breeds  chosen  as  the  instru- 
ments of  the  breeder. 

In  the  illustrations  we  have  first  the  two  elements  of 
the  new  Hampshire,  the  old  Hampshire  and  the  Southdown, 
making  an  improved  breed  both  for  wool  and  mutton;  a 
solid  carcass,  with  the  size  of  the  one  and  the  fineness  of 
wool  of  the  other.  Then  we  have  the  new  Hampshire  and 
the  Cotswold,  a  new  and  an  old  breed,  united  to  make  the 
Oxford  having  a  coarser  wool  than  the  ewe,  but  a  finer  fiber 
than  the  ram,  and  in  these  changes  it  is  as  easy  to  trace  the 
different  bloods  as  if  colors  had  been  mingled. 

At  fig.  15  we  see  the  effect  of  the  prepotent  Southdown 
blood  in  refining 'this  wool,  giving  its  cup-form  scale,  upon 
which  its  softness,  pliability,  elasticity  and  less  aptitude  to 
felt  in  manufacturing  depends.  By  careful  comparison  we 
may  trace  the  infusion  of  the  Southdown  influence  in  the 
improved  sheep,  which  was,  however,  bred  not  for  wool 
but  for  mutton,  and  yet  the  wool  we  may  see  has  been  made 
more  valuable  than  that  of  the  old  race.  It  was  also  double 
in  weight  of  fleece  by  the  larger  carcass  of  the  improved  ani- 
mal. And  the  fiber  has  been  just  so  much  changed  as  to  be 
adapted  to  a  wider  class  of  woolen  goods  than  that  of  the 
Southdown. 

Then  wre  study  fig.  16,  the  Oxford  Down,  a  large  sheep 
of  the  Cotswold  type,  but  as  we  see  modified  as  to  the  fleece 
by  the  influence  of  the  Hampshire  (the  Southdown  indi- 
rectly) and  the  old  Lincoln  through  the  Leicester.  The  re- 
sult of  these  crosses  has  been  to  make  of  the  rougher 
worsted  Cotswold,  a  softer,  finer  fiber,  suited  for  the  finer 
woolens  used  for  man's  softer  clothing,  shawls  and  knitted 
underwear,  for  which  the  long,  less  adherent  Cotswold  fleece 
is  not  fitted. 


CROSS  BREEDING  FOR  WOOL. 


251 


Then  we  go  on  to  the  new  Leicester,  bred  from  the  mam- 
moth coarse- woolecl  Lincoln.  Fig.  17  shows  the  character  of 
this  wool,  which  measured  14  to  16  inches  in  length,  and 
had  so  little  tendency  to  the  felting  quality  as  to  be  made 
into  the  loosest  kinds  of  fabrics,  such  as  fringes,  braids  and 
bindings.  This  monstrous  sheep  was  out  of  date  100 
years  ago,  when  Mr.  Bakewell  had  progressed  somewhat  in 
building  up  his  favorite  sheep,  known  at  that  time  as  the 
Bakewell,  but  afterwards  as  the  improved  Leicester,  and. 
considered  as  the  very  acme  of  skillful  breeding.  This  suc- 
cessful breeder  told  few  of  his  secrets,  but  it  is  known  that 
he  started  with  the  Lincoln  and  used  the  Southdown  as  the 
sire,  to  remodel  the  coarse  ewe  into  a  smooth,  silky-fleeced 
sheep  that  should  make  the  finest  mutton  in  the  world; 
a  quick  feeder,  having  a  good,  smooth  carcass,  much  fat, 
and  as  it  happened  as  the  result  of  this  special  character  of 
the  animal,  a  producer  of  fine,  soft,  silky  wool,  of  which 
the  best  fabrics  could  be  manufactured.  It  should  be  no- 
ticed that  every  improvement  in  the  carcass  and  in  aptitude 
for  feeding  and  for  early  maturity  told  equally  on  the  wool, 
and  by  study  of  the  Leicester  fiber  (fig.  18)  we  see  the  result 
— a  wool  almost  of  the  Merino  character,  but  8  or  10  inches 
long,  suitable  for  the  fleeciest  fabrics,  as  the  soft  nubias, 
and  especially  dear  to  the  patriotic  heart,  as  the  material 


FIG.  18.— Leicester.       FIG.  17.— Lincoln.    FIG.  19.— Shropshire, 
of  the  emblem  of  freedom  that  waves  over  the  American 
capitol.    This  wool  is  the  material  of  which  the  dress  bunt- 
ings are  made  and  the  soft  head  dresses  of  the  farmer's 
wives  and  daughters,  when  they  make  their  evening  visits. 


252  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

It  is  wholly  of  the  Merino  class,  except  for  its  length  and 
want  of  curl,  and  makes  a  most  excellent  cross  with  the 
Merino. 

We  pass  on  to  the  most  useful  cross-bred  sheep  we  have, 
the  Shropshire,  and  there  we  find  perhaps  the  most  remarka- 
ble of  all  the  results  of  cross-breeding  upon  the  fleece.  This 
sheep  has  been  little  thought  of  as  a  wool-bearer,  but  to  the 
wool  student  it  has  a  special  fitness  as  an  example  of  what 
has  been  done  by  crossing,  for  future  use  in  this  direction. 
Fig.  19  shows  a  wool  that  is  unmistakably  made  up  of  the 
Southdown,  fig.  20,  Leicester,  fig.  18,  and  Cots  wold,  fig.  21. 
The  mingled  features  of  these  three  fibers  are  as  plain  to  be 
seen  as  the  three  primary  colors  in  the  rainbow.  The  cupped 
form  of  the  Leicester,  modified  by  the  closer  imbrication 
of  the  Southdown,  and  the  more  uneven  outline  of  the  Cots- 
wold,  are  all  plainly  to  be  found  in  this  drawing;  and  the 
wool  of  this  most  popular  sheep,  next  to  the  Merino,  finds 
its  place  in  the  manufactory  in  special  uses  for  which  the 
sorter  puts  it  on  one  side. 

All  these  specimens  are  of  the  coarser  clothing  wools. 
They  enable  the  manufacturer  greatly  to  extend  his  classes 
of  goods  and  find  variety  to  please  the  wearer.  That  this 
opening  for  variety  is  filled,  we  cannot  believe.  In  fact  we 
must  believe  the  very  contrary,  for  if  there  is  any  one  thing 
the  world  is  pining  for  at  this  time,  it  is  variety  in  every 
way.  And  thus  the  wool  grower  may  well  exercise  his  in- 
genuity, or  tempt  fortune,  in  attempts  to  strike  something 
new  that  may  be  valuable  and  increase  the  demand  for 
wools  of  all  kinds.  The  opening  is  enormous.  Twenty  years 
ago  we  boasted  of  an  annual  product  of  nearly  70  million 
pounds  of  wool;  now  we  think  300  million  pounds  a  small 
affair,  to  be  increased  as  may  be  possible.  In  this  vast  in- 
crease, we  have  surpassed  all  prognostications  of  experts. 
How  mueh  more  we  may  progress  in  the  future,  who 
can  tell?  We  are  using  nearly  as  much  foreign  wool  as  we 
produce,  and  much  of  this  we  may  grow  at  home.  But  we 
may  look  for  changes  such  as  have  occurred  in  late  years 
in  the  greater  use  for  long  Merino  wool,  arid  we  cannot  doubt 
there  are  many  special  qualities  that  will  come  into  exten- 
sive use  as  soon  as  they  appear  on  the  sheep's  back.  And 
this  must  grow  out  of  crossing  the  breeds  we  have  rather 


CROSS  BREEDING  FOR  WOOL.  253 

than  out  of  new  breeds.  We  have  abundant  material  for 
this  work,  and  in  it  the  Merino,  I  feel  convinced,  will  take 
the  first  place. 

As  an  instance  of  the  result  of  special  necessities  in  the 
production  of  wool  I  would  recall  a  passage  in  a  most  able 
and  exhaustive  address, made  by  Dr.  Hayes,  the  President 
of  the  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers  a  few 
years  ago,  in  which  he  mentioned  the  fact,  that  the  great 
popularity  of  the  Cotswold  sheep  during  the  years  of  the 
civil  war,  grew7  out  of  the  requirements  of  the  trade  for  a 
coarse  wool  for  the  manufacture  of  warlike  materials,  such 
as  buntings,  saddle-girths,  epaulets,  trimmings,  coarse  blan- 
kets and  overcoats.  When  the  war  ended  this  demand 
ceased,  and  the  Cotswold  suddenly  became  as  unpopular 
as  it  had  been  otherwise  before.  Now,  said  Dr.  Hayes, 
the  demand  is  for  a  finer  combing  wool,  as  that  of  the  Leices- 
ter, which  furnishes  the  material  for  a  large  variety  of 
dress  goods,  and  is  so  highly  valued  for  its  silkiness,  fineness, 
and  lustre.  This  kind  of  wool  is  mostly  imported  from  Eng- 
land, for  the  reason  principally  that  American  farmers 
will  not  take  the  pains  to  grow  the  roots  which  this  class 
of  sheep— or  any  other  for  that  matter— must  have  to  pro- 
duce the  best  wool.  This  fresh,  succulent  food  is  indispen- 
sable for  the  best  condition  of  sheep  during  the  long,  dry 
feeding  season  of  winter,  and  until  our  wool-growers 
will  adopt  this  manner  of  feeding  we  cannot  hope  to  do  the 
best  we  may,  in  the  production  of  the  best  wools,  and  es- 
pecially of  those  lustrous  combing  wools  of  long,  fine  staple, 
such  as  that  of  the  Leicester,  the  French  Merino,  and  the 
crosses  of  these -which  have  been  found  so  desirable  in 
France  for  the  manufacture  of  the  excellent  dress  goods 
which  we  pay  so  highly  for. 

In  this  production,  the  Merino,  and  especially  the  Ram- 
bouillet  variety,  must  hold  the  most  important  place.  It 
seems  probable  that  this  long-Avool,  large-bodied  sheep,  is  to 
take  the  first  place  as  a  wool  producer,  and  that  the  short- 
wool  sheep  must  follow  the  yet  shorter  Silesia  into  compara- 
tive insignificance,  for  the  reason  that  the  fashion  of  cloth- 
ing has  changed  of  late  years,  as  it  did  fifty  years  ago,  when 
the  fine  nap  broad-cloths  went  out  of  demand,  and  the  more 
varied  napless  cloth  came  into  use.  And  as  there  is  still 


254 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


some  demand  for  even  the  finest  and  shortest  wool,  so  there 
will  be  for  the  medium  Merino  fleece.  But  it  is  clear  that  the- 
tendency  is  to  the  use  of  longer  wools  and  somewhat  coarser 
fiber.  This  will  be  supplied  by  the  Rambouillet  Merino, 
with  its  crosses  and  varieties  known  by  various  names:  Me- 


FIG.  22. 
Ram — M  eri  no — Ewe. 

rino,  fig.  22;  Cotswold,  fig.  21;  Southdown,  fig.  20;  Shrop- 
shire, fig.  19;  and  Leicester,  fig.  18;  and  those  of  our  com- 
mon American  Merino,  which  has  hitherto  been  of  such 
enormous  value  to  American  breeders.  The  illustrations 
here  given  will  go  to  show  how  great  a  variety  of  wools 
may  be  produced  in  this  way,  and  that  with  the  natural 
increase  in  the  consumption  and  demand  for  various  kinds  of 
wools,  the  Merino  will  not  find  its  occupation  gone,  but 


FIG.  23. 
yz  Merino  and  Southdown. 


FIG.  24. 
Merino.  M  Southdown. 


greatly  increased,  as  the  progenitor  of  rams  for  cross-breed- 
ing, and  in  addition  to  its  own  special  use  as  a  wool-bearer, 
for  the  supply  of  numerous  fabrics  that  will  never  go  out  of 
fashion. 

In  all  these  samples  we  may  perceive  the  effect  of  the 


CROSS   BREEDING   FOR  WOOL. 


255 


strong  blood,  and  in  some  the  result  of  both  sides,  as  if  there 
were  a  struggle  for  the  preponderance.  The  five  drawings 
are  of  the  parents  of  the  crosses  which  follow.  When  we 
study  these  cross-bred  wools  we  are  impressed  by  the  fact 
that  the  first  two  crosses  vary  considerably,  showing  the  in- 
fluence of  both  parents,  and  as  these  are  both  of  the  strong- 
est blood,  the  two  oldest  breeds  in  existence,  this  is  not  an 
unexpected  result.  But  in  the  third  cross  the  two  most  un- 


FIG.  25.  FIG.  26.  FIG.  27.          FIG.  28.        FIG.  29. 

Fig.  25,  %  Merino  and  Southdown. 

Fig.  26, 15-16  Merino  and  Southdown 

Fig.  27,  %  Merino,  H  Shropshire,  and  ya  Southdown. 

Fig.  28,  yz  Merino  and  Leicester. 

Fig.  29,  %  Merino  and  %  Leicester. 

like  samples  are  still  so  nearly  of  the  same  character  as  to 
show  that  by  this  cross  a  decided  change  has  been  effected 
and  a  true  cross-bred  wool  has  been  produced. 

Fig.  27  shows  distinctly  the  influence  of  the  Shropshire 
rani  on  the  %  Merino,  and  %  Southdown  ewe.  The  fiber  has 
a  decided  Shropshire  character,  with  enough  of  the  other 
mixed  blood  with  it,  to  make  a  distinct  class  of  wool. 

Pigs.  28  and  29  show  a  distinct  variation  due  to  both  par- 
ents. The  cross  has  been  found  most 
desirable  among  the  French  and  the 
Leicester  is  in  demand  to  supply  this 
kind  of  wool  as  well  as  to  produce  the 
finest  kind  of  mutton,  a  larger  carcass 
of  meat,  and  a  larger  fleece  with  the 
lustre  and  smoothness  of  the  Leicester, 
and  the  fineness  and  softness  of  the 
Merino. 

Figure  78  is  a  fiber  of  wool  taken  FIG.  so. 

from  a  Cotswold-Merino  ram  bred  by  H  Cotswold  and  Merino 


256  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

the  late  Joseph  Harris  and  given  to  the  writer  by  him. 
This  sample  shows  how  two  strong'  natural  tendencies  are 
combined  in  almost  equal  proportions,  as  may  be  easily 
perceived  by  comparing  tigs.  21  and  22  together.  The  fiber 
of  wool  of  this  cross  was  seven  inches  long,  when  stretched, 
had  considerable  crimp,  the  yolkiness  of  the  ewe,  and  none 
of  the  looseness  of  the  ram's  fleece.  To  my  mind  this  was 
the  most  successful  cross  for  wool  that  I  have  seen,  as  it  wras 
a  most  satisfactory  cross  for  market  lambs  to  the  breeder. 

This  is  a  subject  for  much  consideration  and  experiment. 
It  is  suggested  in  this  line.  The  evidence  goes  to  show 
that  there  is  a  wide  field  for  enterprise  and  careful  study 
in  this  cross-breeding.  And  if  sheep-breeders  can  succeed 
in  producing  a  flock  that  will  yield  any  more  desirable  fleece 
than  we  now  have  for  any  special  purpose,  and  at  the  same 
time  yield  good  mutton  by  the  use  of  the  large-bodied  Me- 
rino on  any  of  our  other  breeds,  and  especially  upon  the  na- 
tive sheep,  now  the  least  profitable  of  all  kinds,  much  good 
Will  be  done  to  all  concerned.  I  offer  no  further  suggestion 
to  intelligent  readers,  but  simply  present  the  evidence  which 
I  have  gathered." 

THE  CULTURE  OF  WOOL. 

"The  wool  grower,"  is  a  very  fit  term  to  apply  to  the 
shepherd.  The  wool  is  indeed  grown,  and  this  only  by 
quite  as  much  skill  and  attention  to  every  detail  and  neces- 
sity as  the  ordinary  farmer  applies  to  the  growth  of  his 
crops.  For  these  must  be  fed,  or  they  fail  to  produce  the 
quantity  or  quality  of  the  desired  product;  so  the  wool 
grower  must  feed  his  flocks  for  this  very  same  purpose — the 
crop  of  wool  which  he  gathers  from  his  sheep  annually. 
Wool,  we  know,  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  skin,  produced  by 
the  proper  aliment  by  which  the  flesh  and  its  coverings, 
the  skin  and  its  fleece,  are  nourished.  All  through  the  his- 
tory of  the  sheep  we  find  that  the  feeding  and  general  cul- 
ture of  the  animal  have  been  the  means  by  which  the  ends 
desired  and  worked  for,  have  been  attained  and  secured. 
and  made  a  permanent  acquisition  of  the  sheep  thus  im- 
proved. We  are  too  often  told  that  it  is  breeding  which  has 
produced  these  improvements  in  the  domestic  animals.  If 
this  is  true,  then  we  have  gained  something  from  nothing, 


THE  CULTURE  OF   WOOL.  257 

for  as  we  have  seen  iu  a  previous  chapter,  it  is  a  natural 
law  that  "like  should  produce  like,"  and  at  the  best  we  caii- 
not  gain  anything  more  than  the  mere  likeness  of  the  original 
animals  we  are  breeding,  and  we  shall  do  well  if  we  gain 
only  this,  and  nothing  more. 

This  palpable  fallacy  is  mischievous  and  misleading;  and 
tends,  not  to  the  advancement  of  any  object  in  view,  but  the 
distinct  contrary.  In  all  the  instances  which  have  been 
given  in  the  preceding  pages,  we  have  seen  that  every  im- 
proved breed  has  been  made  through  the  selection  of  the 
best  animals  to  be  procured,  and  that  the  methods  by  which 
these  have  been  made  superior  to  the  common  stock,  even  of 
the  same  breed,  has  been  by  the  most  generous  and  skillful 
culture.  So  that  we  may  fully  accept  the  fundamental  law 
laid  down  for  use  by  all  the  scientific  breeders  and  philo- 
sophical students  in  this  line,  and  make  it  the  rule  for  the 
management  of  our  flocks  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the  full 
profit  from  them,  that  the  feeding  must  be  a  special  accom- 
paniment to  the  breeding  and  an  indispensable  part  of  the 
culture  of  improved  animals. 

Experience  all  through  the  history  of  the  sheep  goes  to 
show,  that  to  sustain  excellence  in  them  the  feeding  must  be 
fully  maintained.  The  English  breeders  from  whom  we 
have  procured  our  best  animals  have  had  a  certain  system 
through  which  they  gained  the  high  position  held  by  their 
flocks,  and  if  this  is  so,  as  cannot  be  gainsaid,  we  must  fol- 
low in  their  steps,  if  we  would  hold  our  own,  not  to  say 
make  any  advance  on  their  high  position. 

It  is  alleged  that  the  English  shepherds  depend  mostly  on 
the  mutton  for  their  profit,  and  that  the  wool  is  a  mere  inci- 
dent in  their  business,  and  not  any  serious  object  of  pursuit. 
We  must  not  be  misled  by  this  fallacy  which  is  contradicted 
by  all  the  past  history  of  English  agriculture,  and  the  main 
part  of  it  as  is  accepted  by  all  concerned.  For  the  sheep  has 
been,  and  still  is,  considered  as  the  very  basis  of  successful 
agriculture  in  Great  Britain,  and  indeed  in  every  leading 
agricultural  nation  of  Europe.  The  very  foundation  of  the 
successful  agriculture  on  the  high  priced  lands  of  Europe 
is  the  feeding  of  sheep,  just  a,s  it  was  alleged  to  be  in  ancient 
times.  It  is  true  the  mutton  is  an  important  incident  in 
the  shepherd's  pursuit,  but  this  is  the  growth  of  flesh.  And  it 


258  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

happens  that  in  making  this  high  condition  of  the  sheep 
the  fleece  cannot  help  but  take  its  share  of  it.  We  all  know 
that  a  poor  sheep  yields  poor  wool,  inferior  in  quantity  and 
in  quality  as  well.  The  condition  of  the  fleece  is  a  certain 
key  to  the  condition  of  the  bearer  of  it.  We  have  seen  that 
the  flesh  and  the  fleece  consist  both  cf  the  very  same  ele- 
ments, and  the  oil  and  yolk  of  the  wool,  which  are 
a  certain  indication  of  quality  of  it,  are  equally  supplied 
through  the  very  same  aliment  by  which  the  body  of  the 
sheep  is  supported.  We  cannot  divert  the  aliment  of  any  one 
part  of  an  animal  from  one  product  of  it,  and  make  it  wholly 
contributory  to  another,  and  a  different  one.  Nature  has  its 
laws  which  are  inviolable,  and  cannot  be  transgressed  with- 
out disaster.  So  that  we  may  be  sure  we  cannot  feed  a  flock 
to  make  an  excellent  and  fully  healthy  carcass,  without 
gaining  similar  results  in  every  part  of  it,  the  covering  of  it 
as  well  as  the  body  itself. 

Again.  Every  fact  in  the  experience  of  feeders  of  sheep 
goes  to  show'  that  any  failure  in  the  regular  feeding  of  a 
sheep  is  marked  by  a  weak  spot  in  the  fiber  of  the  fleece. 
If  the  failure  is  serious  the  W7ool  is  so  weak  and  inelastic 
that  it  breaks  in  the  mere  handling,  and  with  the  slightest  ten- 
sion. Let  us  refer  back  to  the  illustration  of  this  fact  given 
at  figure  6,  in  which  is  seen  very  distinctly  the  effects  of  a 
fault  in  feeding,  and  in  the  nutrition  of  the  sheep  from  which 
the  sample  of  wool  was  taken.  It  is  a  rule  in  the  alimenta- 
'  tion  of  all  animals,  that  the  most  important  parts  and  func- 
tions are  first  provided  for  by  the  disposal  of  the  nutriment, 
and  the  remainder  goes  to  the  support  of  the  least  necessary 
parts.  So  that  every  other  part  of  the  sheep  must  be  sup- 
plied in  excess  of  its  wants  before  the  least  necessary  parts 
are  supplied.  Then  it  must  follow,  that  unless  there  is  a 
surplus  of  proper  aliment  after  the  mere  body  has  been  fully 
supplied,  the  fleece  will  be  the  first  to  suffer.  Consequently 
the  feeding  of  the  sheep  for  the  growth  of  the  fleece  is  to 
be  made  as  much  of  in  the  management  of  a  flock  as  for  the 
support  of  the  life  itself.  Generosity  in  this  regard  is  a  para- 
mount necessity  for  the  product  of  good  wool.  4 

We  have  said  that  the  English  feeders  excel  in  regard 
to  the  mutton  of  their  sheep.  Their  way  of  feeding  is  espe- 
cially adapted  to  this  end.  Their  mutton  is  fat  and  the  fat 


THE  CULTURE  OF   WOOL.  259 

is  now  not  so  much  laid  on  the  cart-ass  just  under  the  skin  as 
it  used  to  be,  when  the  four-year-old  wether  was  the  prime 
market  sheep.  Now  it  goes  to  market  at  half  the  age,  and 
really  before  it  is  fully  grown.  This  naturally  changes  the 
old  style  of  mutton  sheep  which  had  two  inches  of  fat  on  the 
outside  of  the  carcass.  As  the  animal  was  then  fully  grown 
and  was  not  making  flesh,  the  fat  could  only  be  disposed  of 
in  this  way.  But  the  scarcely  maturely  grown  wether  of  the 
present  fashion  is  made  up  of  quickly  grown  flesh,  in  which 
the  fat  is  intimately  intermingled  all  through.  And  this  is 
made  by  the  same  process  of  feeding  from  the  birth  of  the 
lamb  as  was  formerly  applied  to  the  full  grown  animal  only. 
So  that  it  cannot  be  otherwise  than  that  the  fat  in  the  ani- 
mals is  evenly  distributed  all  through  the  young  flesh,  weigh- 
ing half  as  much  as  the  former  aged  one. 

The  result  of  such  generous  feeding  from  birth  cannot 
be  doubted.  The  body  is  fully  supplied,  and  there  is  a  sur- 
plus cf  nutriment  which  goes— where?  Necessarily  to  the 
fleece.  And  thus,  whether  the  English  feeder  of  sheep  in- 
tends it  or  not,  he  is  a  wool  grower  quite  as  much  as  the 
shepherds  in  Argentina  or  Australia  or  Africa  who  shear 
their  sheep  as  long  as  there  is  wool  enough  to  pay,  and  then 
boil  down  the  carcass  of  the  old  sheep  for  the  tallow. 

And  just  as  wrong  feeding  tends  to  disease  of  the  sheep, 
so  it  is  productive  of  disease  in  the  fleece.  Why  it  should 
not  be  put  in  this  plain  and  simple  way  there  is  no  reason, 
for  if  the  animal  may  be  diseased  in  any  part  of  it,  in  the 
skin  even,  why  not  attach  this  same  distinction  to  the  wool? 
It  puts  the  matter  in  a  more  forcible  position  to  the  wool 
growrer  possibl3T,  and  will  give  him  a  better  idea  of  the  im- 
perative necessity  for  avoiding  all  errors  of  management 
by  which  the  wool  is  injured.  And  the  first  of  these  is  in- 
sufficient feeding;  the  next  is  undue  exposure  to  sudden 
changes  of  weather.  It  is  not  so  much  the  kind  of  weather 
the  sheep  are  exposed  to  as  frequent  and  serious  changes, 
without  anj7  reasonable  shelter.  The  sheep  is  easily  suited 
in  every  way,  but  while  it  may  be  thought  its  fleece  is  a 
protection  against  changes,  it  is  quite  otherwise  in  fact. 
It  is  a  protection  against  cold,  if  this  is  continued,  but  sudden 
changes  from  warm  to  severely  cold  weather  are  as  seri- 
ously felt  as  if  the  sheep  had  only  its  bare  skin.  It  is  so  in 


260  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

all  concerning  this  easily  susceptible  animal.  Any  kind  of 
steady,  unchanging  conditions  it  will  withstand,  but  changes 
are  as  trying  to  a  sheep  as  to  a  person  who  is  wrapped  in 
a  heavy  overcoat  every  day  in  the  year. 

The  most  common  disease  in  wool  is  that  commonly 
called  break.  It  cannot  be  perceived  by  the  naked  eye,  but 
is  very  easily  discovered  by  stretching  a  small  lock  of  wool. 
Then  any  weak  spot  in  it  breaks,  and  this  if  examined  under 
a  microscope  shows  this  kind  of  defect  (fig.  32)  in  the  fiber. 
This  sample  was  taken  from  the  fleece  of  a  sheep  which  had 
died  through  exposure  and  starvation,  on  the  range,  and  the 
severity  .of  its  sufferings  may  be  understood  by  comparing 
a  fiber  from  a  sheep  well  cared  for  through  the  same  Winter 


FIG.  31.  FIG.  32. 

Healthy  liber  of  wool.  Break  in  wool— A  diseased  fiber 

in  the  same  locality  with  it  (fig.  31).  These  samples  were 
taken  from  the  common  native  sheep  which  have  a  small 
infusion  of  Southdown  blood  in  them,  somewhat  far  back, 
but  sti'll  show  it  in  their  occasional  smutty  faces  and  legs. 

This  defect  is  equivalent  to  a  diary,  or  nearly  so,  of  the 
sheep's  condition.  When  the  first  failing  occurs  the  weak 
spot  is  of  course  at  the  skin,  but  as  the  fleece  grows  this 
weak  spot  is  carried  up,  and  although  the  fault  may  not  hap- 
pen again  this  evidence  of  it  remains  in  the  wool.  If  it  is 
repeated,  the  same  failing  is  marked  on  the  record,  and  so  on, 
until  the  sheep  is  shorn,  when  the  fleece  is  worthless  if  it  is 
badly  defective,  and  lessened  in  value  proportionately  with 
the  amount  of  defect  in  it.  It  is  really  the  most  common 
defect  in  wool. 

Another  disease  is  that  commonly  known  as  stripy  wool. 
This  affects  the  fleece  in  the  most  valuable  part  of  it, 


THE  CULTURE  OF  WOOL.  261 

that  is  on  the  side  near  the  shoulder.  This  kind  of  wool 
is  without  elasticity,  harsh,  and  without  the  curl  or  wavy 
fiber  of  the  best  wool.  It  is  most  distinct  in  the  Merino  and 
the  curly  long  wools,  as  that  of  the  Lincoln.  Such  wool  is 
dead  and  lifeless,  without  elasticity,  and  may  be  pressed 
by  the  hand  into  a  ball,  as  so  much  cotton  fiber  might.  Of 
course  its  value  to  the  manufacturer  is  depreciated,  for  it 
can  only  be  used  in  inferior  goods,  as  to  mix  with,  shoddy, 
to  hold  the  stuff  together. 

Another  defect  is  known  as  toppiness,  which  is  a  sort 
of  felting  of  the  fibers  at  the  top  of  the  fleece,  by  which  it 
causes  waste  in  the  carding.  This  is  a  result  of  uneven 
growth  due  to  a  continued  period  of  good  feeding  or  condi- 
tion of  health,  followed  as  it  might  be  by  hardship  in  the 
Winter,  on  exposed  ranges  for  instance,  or  by  want  of  shel- 
ter in  the  smaller  farm  flocks.  In  the  lamb  it  may  be  only 
a  temporary  condition,  but  in  an  old  sheep  it  is  a  drawback 
to  its  use  as  a  lamb  bearer,  for  this,  as  all  other  defects  in 
the  fleece,  are  inheritable.  It  is  one  of  the  points  to  be 
thought  of  when  stock  is  selected  for  breeding. 

Felted  wool  is  a  decided  disease,  arising  from  a  constitu- 
tional or  a  temporary  impairment  of  constitution.  The  wool 
is  naturally  weak  and  devoid  of  sufficient  yolk  to  lubricate 
it,  so  that  it  does  not  move  smoothly  but  chafes  in  the  mo- 
tions of  the  animal.  Then  when  wet  weather  happens,  and 
the  wool  becomes  wet  to  the  skin  the  fibers  adhere,  and  in 
time  becomes  matted  together  in  bunches,  causing  a 
serious  loss  in  the  combing  or  carding  of  it.  This  fault 
is  most  common  in  the  rather  harsher  wools  of  the  Downs 
varieties,  under  such  inferior  conditions  as  do  not  provide 
sufficient  nutriment  to  sustain  the  best  growth  of  the  fleece. 
When  this  felting  is  less  apparent  and  occurs  only  at  the  bot- 
tom next  the  skin  as  the  results  of  damage  later  in  the 
growing  season,  or  to  inherited  tendency  to  the  fault,  it  is 
known  as  clouding,  and  appears  as  a  flossy  condition  of  the 
fleece  near  the  skin.  This  is  easily  removed  when  it  exists 
to  long  wool,  that  is  combed,  because  the  combing  removes 
this  soft  fiber,  but  it  causes  waste  and  a  loss  even  in  this  way. 
In  short  wools  it  is  not  so  objectionable  as  the  carding  mixes 
it  with  the  other  wool,  and  it  has  no  unfavorable  effect 
in  the  succeeding  processes.  But  in  examining  animals  for 


262  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

breeding  this  defect  is  one  to  be  considered  as  objectionable, 
and  considerably  reducing  the  value.  In  every  addition  to 
the  flock,  of  a  father  for  the  lambs,  the  highest  excellence 
only  should  be  the  main  consideration.  For  as  these  defects 
are  constitutional  one  knows  not  what  others  may  be  hid- 
den in  the  animal  to  appear  in  time  in  his  progeny. 

Broad  topped  wool  is  that  kind  which  splits  at.  the  top 
and  down  some  way  into  the  fiber.  The  surface  of  the  fleece 
may  appear  all  right,  but  when  the  wool  is  parted  it  is  found 
that  the  fibers  are  adhering  together  some  way  down,  thus 
dividing  the  fleece  into  masses  which  cannot  be  parted  with- 
out tearing  the  wool  apart  with  some  force.  This  matted 
fiber  is  dead  wool,  and  is  a  total  loss  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  finest  goods.  This  is  an  inherited  defect,  and  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  choice  of  a  breeding  animal  \vhether  ram  or 
ewe.  It  may  be  pardoned  to  some  extent  in  the  ewre,  for  ob- 
vious reasons,  when  extra  good  quality  otherwise  causes  this 
to  be  overlooked;  but  it  is  unpardonable  in  a  ram  because 
the  fault  may  effect  the  whole  produce  of  the  flock. 

A  kempy  sheep  should  be  discarded  on  sight.  This  disease 
is  entirely  constitutional.  In  breeding  stock  it  is  a  fatal  ob- 
jection. Wherever  it  exists  it  is  to  be  found  all  over  the 
sheep.  It  is  a  residue  of  the  old  lineage  from  the  wild  ani- 
mal, and  that  it  is  still  existing  goes  to  show  the  force  of 
the  inheritable  tendency  to  go  back  to  a  distant  ancester.  In 
this  case  it  means  some  thousands  of  years,  since  which  it 
has  been  continuing  in  the  blood.  It  is  recognized  by  the 
short,  coarse  hairs  mostly  found  on  those  parts  of  the  sheep 
where  the  wool  is  the  lightest,  and  the  shortest;  as  on  the 
face,  upper  part  of  the  legs,  inside  the  flank,  and  on  the 
scrotum.  When  any  sheep  is  found  to  be  thus  affected,  the 
same  hairs  may  be  found  on  examination  all  through  the 
fleece,  and  as  these  harsh  hairs  do  not  take  the  dye  as  the 
wool  does,  this  kemp  is  a  serious  objection  to  the  manufac- 
turer of  any  kind  of  fine  goods.  This  of  course  reduces  the 
value  of  such  wool  and  the  bearers  of  it.  It  thus  lessens  the 
value  of  the  fleece  one-half,  and  it  is  not  possible  for  the 
wool  sorter  to  separate  it  from  the  actual  wool.  It  is  some- 
times found  in  the  wrinkles  of  the  very  heavily  fleeced  Me- 
rinos, and  may  thus  be  sorted  out  at  the  expenditure  of  a  lit- 
tle extra  labor  and  waste  of  wool,  but  it  should  be  the  ob- 


THE  CULTURE  OF  WOOL.  263 

ject  of  every  advanced  breeder  to  exterminate  tins  worthless 
part  of  the  fleece,  by  selecting  out  as  much  as  possible  all 
the  kempy  sheep  from  his  flock.  There  is  no  reason  why  this 
should  not  and  may  not  be  done.  Breeders  have  covered 
the  Merino,  and  indeed  other  breeds  of  sheep,  over  with 
good  wool  down  to  the  hoofs,  and  other  breeds  have  been 
improved  in  a  similar  way,  thus  adding  very  much  to  the 
product  of  a  flock.  It  needs  only  the  efforts  of  all  concerned, 
and  possibly  such  suggestions  as  this  to  the  advanced  breed- 
ers, to  rid  all  kinds  of  sheep  of  every  defect,  and  as  far  as 
each  may  in  his  allotted  time,  do  everything  in  his  power 
to  leave  the  world  in  this  respect  somewhat  better  than  he 
found  it.  No  one  has  any  use  for  keinp,  and  it  should  be 
obliterated  from  every  flock,  just  as  we  may  say  of  tlje 
horns,  which  to  a  large  extent  have  been  got  rid  of  except  in 
the  Merino,  and  why  not  in  this  breed,  which  might  doubt- 
less be  brought  to  put  the  matter  thus  wasted,  and  which  is 
precisely  the  same  matter  as  that  of  wool,  into  the  fleece? 
This  remark  also  applies  to  certain  other  diseases  of  the 
fleece,  indirectly,  and  directly  diseases  of  the  skin,  through 
which  the  wool  is  affected;  such  as  scab,  the  most  costly  of 
all  this  class.of  diseases,  with  other  parasites,  by  which  the 
shepherd  is  troubled,  and  which  might  easily  be  eradicated 
by  the  destruction  of  these  creatures  in  a  sure  and  certain 
way,  as  has  been  shown  by  the  effective  measures  taken  in 
Australia  for  the  destruction  of  the  scab  mite.  This  result, 
although  not  yet  completely  effective,  has  been  so  far  at- 
tained as  to  prove  the  possibility  of  this  end  in  the  course  of 
a  short  time,  when  all  concerned  shall  have  adopted  the 
measures  by  which  a  large  number  of  flocks  have  been  com- 
pletely freed  from  the  disease.  There  are  several  diseases 
of  this  class  due  to  the  action  of  parasites,  chiefly  vegeta- 
ble, and  varieties  of  fungi  of  a  low  order,  which  directly  at- 
tack the  wool  and  feeding  upon  the  fibers  cause  these  to  split 
and  become  entangled  in  a  mass.  These  diseases  also  affect 
hair  in  a  similar  manner.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
these  and  in  fact  every  disease  of  the  skin,  and  some  consti- 
tutional disorders,  are  in  effect  diseases  of  the  fleece,  but 
these  will  be  noticed  fully  in  the  last  chapter,  which  is  de- 
voted to  diseases  of  the  sheep  particularly. 


264  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

UNIFORMITY  IN  WOOL. 

A  serious  defect  in  wool  may  not  be  strictly  a  disease, 
but  it  may  be  a  result  of  a  poor  condition  of  the  sheep  due 
to  some  mistake  or  neglect  in  the  management.  The  best 
and  finest  wool  is  found  on  the  shoulders,  and  this  is  made 
the  standard  of  the  whole  quality  of  the  fleece.  If,  as  com- 
pared with  this,  the  wool  on  the  sides,  thigh,  rump,  and 
breech,  approaches  it  in  quality,  the  better  the  fleece  will  be 
all  through.  An  equality  in  fineness  of  these  parts  of  the 
fleece  makes  the  fleece  even  as  to  the  fineness  of  the  wool. 
A  general  regularity  of  length  of  wool  on  these  parts  of  the 
body,  makes  the  fleece  even  in  this  respect  of  length  of 
staple.  The  density  of  the  fleece  is  tested  by  closing  the 
hand  upon  the  wool  of  a  part  of  the  loin,  and  on  the  rump, 
and  if  it  is  found  that  the  fleece  is  as  thick  and  close  on 
these  parts  as  on  the  other  portions  of  the  sheep,  the  density 
of  the  wool  is  even.  The  perfect  fleece  is  nearly  equal  in 
fineness  of  staple  from  the  shoulder  to  the  thigh;  and  if  the 
wool  is  nearly  equal  in  length  at  the  shoulder,  the  ribs,  thigh, 
and  on  the  back,  the  density  is  equal  on  the  shoulder  and 
across  the  loins,  and  there  are  no  defects,  due  to  the  diseases 
above  mentioned,  the  wool  is  uniform.  A  perfect  fleece 
is  really  a  certificate  of  perfect  health  in  the  sheep  and  of 
the  good  management  of  the  flock  by  the  shepherd.  The 
even  growth  and  quality  go  to  prove  the  evenness  and  regu- 
larity of  the  general  management  and  the  concurrent  thrifti- 
ness  of  the  flock. 

WASHING  SHEEP. 

Wool  necessarily  becomes  charged  with  many  impurities 
during  the  season  of  its  growth.  Dust  adheres  to  it  by  rea- 
son of  the  oiliness  and  viscous  nature  of  the  yolk.  The  se- 
cretions of  the  skin  gather  in  it,  as  well  as  the  filth  of  the 
sheep.  There  is  an  excessive  perspiration  exuding  from  the 
skin,  more  or  less  as  the  season  excites  it.  All  these  foreign 
matters  add  much  to  the  weight  of  the  fleece,  and  reduce  its 
general  value  to  the  buyer,  who  usually  deducts  one-third 
from  the  current  prices  as  compensation  for  these  Jmpurities. 
As  a  rule  some  variations  occur  in  this  regard  by  reason  of 
the  quantity  of  impurities  existing  in  the  wool.  This  is  due 
to  the  manner  in  which  the  sheep  have  been  kept,  the  kind  of 


WASHING  SHEEP.  265 

pasture  on  which  they  have  fed,  and  other  obvious  circum- 
stances. So  that  any  undeviating  rule  for  this  deduction 
must  be  a  manifest  injustice  to  the  owner  of  the  flock:  There 
may  be  a  full  half  difference  in  this  respect  in  the  fleeces 
of  different  flocks.  So  that  the  custom  of  brook-washing,  as 
it  is  commonly  termed,  is  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of 
cleansing  the  fleeces  from  the  greater  part  of  these  impuri- 
ties. This  semi-barbarous  process  is  not  only  far  from 
effective,  but  it  is  seriously  hazardous  to  the  health  of  both 
the  shepherd  and  his  sheep.  Unless  the  water  is  pure,  and 
the  bed  of  the  stream  is  free  from  mud  or  sand,  the  wool 
comes  from  the  operation  at  times  more  heavily  charged  with 
impurity  than  before  it  was  washed.  On  the  whole  this 
process  is  justly  becoming  obsolete,  and  if  the  wool  is  to  be 
washed  on  the  sheep's  back  the  operation  should  be  per- 
formed under  the  most  convenient  and  effective  arrange- 
ments. 

Such  an  arrangement  consists  of  a  suitable  enclosure  for 
the  sheep  on  a  green  clean  sward,  and  in  which  a  catch  pen 
as  described  on  page  214  is  arranged.  A  suitable  boiler  is 
used  by  which  the  water  may  be  kept  at  an  average  heat  of 
eighty  degrees,  in  the  \vashing  tank.  This  is  reached  by  a 
sloping  platform,  enclosed  at  the  sides,  along  which  the 
sheep  is  led  by  an  assistant.  As  soon  as  one  is  washed  in 
the  tank  at  the  end  of  this  platform  it  is  discharged  through 
a  passage  way  into  a  clean,  grassy  plot,  and  the  next  one  is 
taken  in  hand.  As  it  is  required  the  water  in  the  tank  is 
renewed,  and  it  is  an  excellent  way  to  help  the  washing  to 
clip  off  the  most  filthy  tag  locks  behind  the  sheep  and  have 
these  washed  separately  after  the  sheep  have  been  finished. 

No  soap  is  required  in  this  process,  the  yolk  of  the  wool 
being  a  natural  soap.  It  consists  of  a  little  less  than  one-half 
water,  and  more  than  one-half  fatty  matter  akin  to  a  com- 
mon potash  soap.  The  potash  in  the  yolk  is  so  abundant 
that  in  large  establishments  it  is  recovered  from  the  waste 
water  and  sold.  Besides  the  soapy  yolk  there  is  about  eight 
to  ten  per  cent  of  oil  in  the  fleece,  but  this  is  not  generally 
removed  by  the  washing,  some  being  left  in  the  wool.  It  is 
not  desirable  to  carry  the  washing  so  far  as  to  rid  the  fleece 
of  its  oil;  the  result  of  this  is  to  make  the  fiber  harsh  to 
the  hand,  and  to  that  extent  render  it  unsatisfactory  to  the 


£66  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

buyer.  This,  however,  is  avoided  by  adding  a  moderate 
quantity  of  some  non-drying  oil  to  the  fleece  the  day  after 
the  washing  is  done,  thus  restoring  the  softness  and  elasticity 
to  the  fiber.  If  two  weeks  are  permitted  to  elapse  before 
the  shearing,  and  the  sheep  are  kept  in  a  dry,  clean  grass 
field,  the  wool  will  have  regained  its  natural  softness. 

It  is  a  question  among  experts  whether  excess  of  yolk 
is  a  desirable  quality  of  a  fleece.  The  old  authorities  in  this 
regard  favored  the  largest  quantity  of  yolk.  The  leading  old 
writer  on  sheep,  Mr.  Youatt,  was  of  the  belief  that  no 
amount  of  yolk  might  be  thought  excessive.  But  the  old 
beliefs  have  generally  been  discarded  in  the  majority  of  in- 
stances, in  all  kinds  of  scientific  matters,  for  the  reason  that 
these  things  were  only  very  partially  understood  half  a  cen- 
tury ago,  and  we  have  a  far  better  knowledge  of  the  reasons 
for  things  now  than  were  then  possible.  Mr.  Randall,  one 
of  the  highest  early  authors  on  sheep,  thought— as  most 
of  his  successors  do  to-day— that  excessive  yolk  was  a  waste 
of  material  for  no  use,  and  the  matter  of  it  might  be  more 
economically  disposed  of  some  other  way.  As  nothing  comes 
from  nothing,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  shepherd  must  pay 
in  some  way  for  the  yolk  in  the  wool,  just  the  same  as  the 
wool  itself  costs  an  equivalent  of  money  spent  in  feed,  of 
which  it  is  a  product.  But  yolk  is  an  absolute  necessity  for 
the  well  growing  of  the  fleece,  and  an  abundant  supply  of  it 
is  a  great  safeguard  against  some  of  the  diseases  of  wool 
above  described.  But  this  matter  may  be  left  to  work 
itself  out  as  every  other  of  the  same  sort  is  doing,  and  will 
do,  by  the  good  sense  of  the  intelligent  leaders  of  this  great 
interest. 

SHEEP  DIPS  AND  DIPPING  SHEEP. 

One  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  management  of 
sheep,  next  to  the  feeding,  is  the  occasional  dipping  of  the 
flock.  This  is  essentially  a  process  of  cleansing  the  skin, 
and.  avoiding  the  diseases  of  it,  and  the  fleece  together, 
that  may  be  reached  in  this  way.  This  process  is  essential 
to  the  welfare  of  every  flock.  Generally  it  is  gone  through 
once  a  year.  But  experience  and  a  considerable  reduction  in 
the  cost  of  the  process,  have  tended  to  encourage  the  practice 
of  dipping  twice  and  even  three  times  in  the  year.  Twice 
in  the  year  is  really  indispensable  for  the  health  and  comfort 


DIPS  AND  DIPPING.  267 

of  the  flock,  consequent  upon  the  improved  condition  of  the 
skin,  the  removal  of  the  injurious  and  tormenting  parasites, 
and  the  resulting  improved  growth  of  the  fleece.  In  general, 
this  process  is  thought  to  be  merely  necessary  for  the  cure  or 
escape  from  that  pestilent  disease,  the  scab;  but  really 
this  is  only  one  incident  in  the  question  as  to  how  many 
times  in  the  year  we  ought  to  dip  the  sheep. 

Upon  reflection,  as  to  the  nature  of  wool,  and  its  com- 
plete relationship  to  the  skin,  we  may  well  be  assured  that 
whatever  conduces  to  a  healthful  condition  of  the  skin  is 
equally  conducive  to  the  welfare  of  the  fleece,  and  the  gen- 
eral experience  of  those  large  sheep  owners  who  have  prac- 
ticed a  biennial  dipping  of  their  flocks,  goes  to  prove  be- 
yond question  that  it  has  more  than  paid  the  whole  cost 
in  the  increased  yield  of  the  fleece,  as  well  as  the  improved 
condition  of  it,  by  which  its  market  value  has  been  increased 
sufficiently  to  return  every  dollar  expended  in  the  process, 
besides  insuring  such  comfort  to  the  flock  as  has  greatly  aided 
in  their  feeding  for  market;  in  the  ability  of  the  ewes  to 
bear  and  feed  better  lambs;  in  the  growth  of  the  lambs; 
and  in  the  important  saving  in  labor  consequent  upon  this 
betterment  of  the  flocks.  The  comfort  of  mind  of  the  shep- 
herd is  also  something  to  be  thought  of  in  this  connection; 
for  when  the  flock  is  known  to  be  free  from  all  the  discom- 
forts and  diseases  incident  to  a  diseased  skin,  and  the  per- 
secution by  bloodthirsty  parasites,  the  shepherd  may  be 
happy  by  day  and  by  night,  and  enjoy  the  sweet  sleep  which 
is  the  perquisite  of  the  just  and  industrious  and  thoughtful 
and  successful  man. 

There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of  dips,  and  of  all  that  we 
are  acquainted  with,  there  is  only  one  which  is  not  useful 
and  effective  for  the  purpose,  and  what  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  safe  for  the  sheep,  and  fatal  to  the  parasite  for 
the  destruction  of  which  the  dipping  is  practiced.  But  more 
than  this,  every  one  of  these  dips  are  really  antiseptics;  that 
is,  while  they  destroy  injurious  parasites— the  scab-mite, 
the  bloodthirsty  tick,  the  lice  and  the  fungoid  parasites  of 
the  wool,  as  well  as  of  the  skin— they  cleanse  the  skin  from 
the  accumulated  gathering  of  its  secretions;  they  open  the 
pores  to  a  healthful  function;  and  thus  free  the  sheep's 
system  from  the  dangerous  probability  of  the  absorption  of 


268  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP 

unwholesome  matter  in  the  blood,  by  which  diseases  of 
various  kinds  are  sure  to  happen,  and  which  give  vast  trou- 
ble and  anxiety  to  the  shepherd,  as  well  as  inflict  upon  him 
heavy  losses.  It  is  always  best  and  cheapest  to  avoid 
troubles  of  any  and  every  kind,  and  this  process  of  dipping 
the  sheep  tends  to  avoid  many  difficulties,  some  uuthouglit 
of  by  the  owner  of  a  flock.  • 

The  one  reserved  dip  above  suggested  is  that  sulphur  and 
lime  mixture  which  has  been  so  highly  extolled  and  recom- 
mended by  some  of  the  amateur  shepherds,  whose  field  of 
labor  is  at  Washington,  the  seat  of  our  paternal  and  watch- 
ful Government.  This  dip  is  one  of  the  most  injurious  that 
could  have  been  suggested  or  invented.  It  will  doubtless  kill 
the  scab  insect  and  the  ticks,  too,  and  most  effectively,  for 
it  will  destroy  the  fleece  and  the  sheep  as  well,  and  it  is  a 
plain  fact  that  where  there  are  no  sheep  and  no  fleeces  there 
will  be  no  parasites  to  annoy  the  shepherd.  And  this  will 
be  the  inevitable  result  of  the  use  of  this  most  offensive  and 
acrid  stuff. 

Lime,  we  all  know,  is  used  by  the  wool  pullers  to  loosen 
the  fiber  from  the  sheep  skins.  It  is  one  of  the  most  effective 
depilatories,  and  must  be  used  with  the  utmost  caution.  By 
its  combination  with  sulphur  it  does  not  lose  this  destructive 
action  on  the  skin,  and  when  used  for  a  dip  for  sheep  this 
excessive  caution  is  something  impossible,  except  for  some 
professional  veterinary  to  exercise  during  the  use  of  the  dan- 
gerous stuff.  Even  then,  were  it  the  only  thing  in  existence 
for  this  use  it  would  be  open  to  the  most  serious  objections 
and  would  in  many  instances  destroy  flocks  to  which  it 
might  be  applied  without  due  caution. 

The  objections  to  this  wholly  injurious  and  unsafe  dip 
are  increased  in  force  by  the  fact  that  there  are  many 
excellent  preparations  for  dipping  sheep  that  are  safe,  effect- 
ive, and  cheap;  even  better  in  all  these  respects  than  any 
home  made  dip;  such  as  that  of  tobacco  and  sulphur.  And 
these  are  obtainable  on  demand  always  of  the  same  strength 
and  effectiveness,  and  most  easily  applied  to  their  specinl 
uses.  We  may  mention  just  here,  that  for  use  when  acciden- 
tal infection  of  the  flock  by  ticks  may  happen,  that  the  use 
of  sour  buttermilk  poured  along  the  back,  and  led  down  the 
sides  of  the  sheep  by  skillful  use  of  the  hands  will  rid  the 


DIPS   AND  DIPPING.  269 

sheep  or  the  lambs  of  the  pests.  This  devise  may  be  useful 
in  case  the  regular  dipping  may  not  have  had  its  complete 
desired  effect,  or  the  sheep  may  have  picked  up  a  fresh 
stock  of  the  ticks  in  any  way. 

A  word  should  be  said  as  to  the  arsenical  dips-.  These  are 
very  effective  in  use,  and  safe,  except  as  to  one  circumstance, 
which  is  possible  danger  to  the  lambs  if  they  are  permitted 
to  join  the  ewes  until  the  wool  has  completely  drained  off. 
The  same  may  be  said  in  regard  to  the  tobacco  dip. 

This,  however,  is  given  only  as  a  hint  to  the  owners 
cf  small  flocks;  it  cannot  take  the  place  of  the  regular  dip- 
ping apparatus,  or  the  regular  dipping  preparations  in  the 
market.  It  may  also  be  of  interest  to  all  concerned  in  re- 
gard to  the  lime  and  sulphur,  or  sulphide  of  lime,  to  mention 
the  fact  that  the  actual  experience  of  a  well  known  wool 
scouring  establishment,  in  which  some  wool  from  sheep 
dipped  in  this  highly  caustic  mixture  was  scoured,  and  after 
the  finishing  was  found  to  be  so  much  injured  as  to  bring  less 
money  than  the  wool  of  sheep  dipped  with  the  other  prepara- 
tions in  the  market.  This  is  to  be  expected  from  the  known 
character  of  this  caustic  compound.  For  whatever  will  de- 
stroy the  skin,  must  have  a  similar  result  on  the  fiber,  which 
grows  from  the  skin.  This  is  no  new  remedy  for  scab, 
as  it  is  called,  either.  It  was  recommended  by  a  California 
chemist  twenty  or  thirty  years  .ago,  and  was  mentioned  in 
the  U.  S.  Agricultural  Report  of  1876  as  a  cheap  preparation. 
It  is  cheap  certainly,  as  to  its  cost,  but  experience  in  Cali- 
fornia goes  to  show  that  in  practice  it  was  a  very  dear- 
thing. 

Sheep  are  dipped  in  troughs  arranged  in  many  ways,  as 
the  fancy  or  convenience  of  those  concerned  may  dictate. 
For  a  small  flock  a  trough  twelve  feet  long,  eight  inches 
wide  at  the  bottom,  and  thirty  inches  at  the  top,  with  a  suf- 
ficient depth  to  cover  the  sheep  except  its  head,  which  is 
held  up  as  it  is  passed  through  the  trough,  the  body  being  sub- 
merged sufficiently  to  enable  the  assistants  to  thoroughly 
wash  the  animal  and  reach  every  part  of  the  skin.  The  dip- 
ping liquid  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  something  over  a  hun- 
dred degrees,  up  to  a  hundred  and  ten  or  twelve,  by  frequent 
additions  of  hot  liquid  from  a  heater  adjacent  to  the  dipping 
trough.  It  is  diluted  to  the  right  degree  in  strict  accordance 


270  THE   DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

with  the  directions  given  by  the  makers  of  whatever  dip  is 
used.  These  directions  should  be  followed  strictly,  as  they 
are  based  on  accurate  experiments  and  long  practical  ex- 
perience. 

After  having  passed  through  the  dipping  liquid  the  sheep 
are  kept  in  a  pen  adjacent  to  it  and  having  a  tight  floor 
sloping  back  to  the  dipping  trough,  into  which  the  excess 
of  the  dipping  liquid  drains.  After  sufficient  draining,  the 
sheep  are  let  into  a  lot  where  the  fleece  may  dry.  But  ewes 
with  lambs  are  to  be  kept  apart  from  the  lambs  until  the 
fleece  is  completely  drained. 

It  is  no  harm  if  some  struggling  sheep  should  take  some 
of  the  dip  into  its  nostrils.  Indeed  some  of  it  may  reach 
the  hiding  places  of  the  annoying  bot-fly,  and  in  the  violent 
sneezing  of  the  sheep  from  the  effects  of  the  dip,  these  pests 
may  be  ejected  to  the  great  relief  of  the  sheep.  That  the 
sheep  in  this  process  may  be  subject  to  such  accidents  as  this 
is  a  good  reason  why  injuriously  caustic  preparations,  as  the 
exceedingly  corrosive  sulphur  and  lime  mixture,  should  be 
avoided.  The  regular  dips  in  the  market  are  all,  not  only 
effective  as  a  sanitary  wash  for  the  skin,  but  used  after  the 
shearing  they  are  healing  in  their  effects  on  any  cuts  that 
may  be  made  in  the  shearing.  Immediately  after  the  shear- 
ing is  a  good  time  for  the  dipping.  There  is  no  waste  of  the 
dipping  liquid,  and  the  process  is  very  much  simplified  and 
eased  as  compared  with  the  dipping  previous  to  the  shearing. 
It  is  an  indispensable  precaution  to  be  taken,  not  for  the 
cure  of  the  scab  disease  only,  but  for  its  prevention;  and 
every  reasonable  flock  owner— we  think— would  favor  a  na- 
tional law  by  Congress  making  dipping  obligatory  as  not 
only  a  cure  for  diseased  sheep,  but  as  an  effective  means 
of  totally  eradicating  this  pestilence. 

SWIMMING   DIP  TANK. 

The  following  plan  is  used  with  success: 

The  swimming  tank  should  be  from  fourteen  to  fifty  feet 
long  and  five  feet  deep,  eighteen  inches  wide  at  the  top  and 
not  over  six  inches  wide  at  the  bottom.  The  tank  should  be 
made  of  two  inch  tongued  and  grooved  boards,  closely  fitted 
together  so  as  to  avoid  leakage.  At  one  end  the  tank 
should  be  tapped  with  holes  for  heating  coil.  This  coil 


DIPS  AND  DIPPING. 


271 


should  be  run  to  a  stove  or  fire  conveniently  located,  and 
constructed  on  the  same  principle  as  any  ordinary  kitchen 
hot-water  boiler,  and  having  at  the  same  time,  kettles  close 
by  in  which  hot  liquid  and  hot  water  can  be  obtained  for  re- 
plenishing the  dipping  tank;  or  if  you  have  no  coil  with 
stove,  have  kettles  and  heating  apparatus  sufficiently  large 


to  keep  the  tank  well  supplied  with  hot  liquid  at  the  degree 
required,  namely,  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
degrees,  according  to  the  kind  of  dip  used. 

At  one  end  of  the  tank  should  be  constructed  a  chute, 
just  wide  enough  to  admit  one  sheep  at  a  time,  say  eighteen 
inches.  On  the  other  end  draining  pens  should  be  arranged 


272  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

large  enough  to  hold  about  thirty  sheep,  so  they  can  stand, 
and  the  surplus  ooze  drip  off  and  be  returned  to  the  dipping 
vat.  These  draining  pens  will  be  found  quite  an  economy 
when  large  flecks  'are  handled.  The  end  of  the  tank 
nearest  the  draining  pens  should  have  considerable  slope, 
and  cleats  be  nailed  across  for  the  sheep  to  walk  up  on. 

A  CHEAP,  PORTABLE  DIPPING  VAT. 

The  accompanying  cut  shows  a  handy  and  inexpensive 
dipping  vat,  which  can  be  constructed  with  the  appliances  on 
most  every  farm.  It  is  made  of  one  and  a  quarter  inch 


tongued  and  grooved  boards,  put  together  at  the  joints  with 
pitch,  and  is  furnished  with  handles,  by  which  it  can  be 
moved  from  place  to  place.  It  may  be  six  feet  long,  three 
feet  wide  and  three  feet  deep.  The  sloping  ends  have  cleats 
nailed  across  them  on  the  inside,  by  which  the  sheep  are  as- 
sisted to  get  out  of  the  vat,  upon  a  draining  floor  placed  to 
receive  them. 

SMALL  AND  LARGE  TANKS  USED  ON  THE  RANGE. 

A  Utah  wool  grower  gives  the  following  excellent  plan 
for  both  hand  and  swimming  tanks: 

For  a  herd  of  2,500  head  I  would  recommend  the  small 
tanks  as  cheaper,  easier  made,  and  having  less  dip  remaining 
after  the  herd  is  dipped,  and  easier  cleaned  out  during  the 
process  of  dipping  as  more  or  less  mud  will  accumulate  in 
the  bottom  which  must  be  cleaned  out  every  day  or  two. 

The  annexed  diagram  explains  itself. 

"A,"  platform  of  boards  nailed  to  2x4  inch  scantling 
which  are  laid  on  the  ground. 

"B,"  dipping  tank,  30  inches  deep,  48  inches  long,  24 
inches  top  measurement,  10  inches  on  bottom. 

"C,"  sloping  platform,  which  drains  into  tank  "D." 

These  are  placed  in  the  shearing  pen,  or  in  a  pen  contigu- 
ous (at  the  option  of  the  shepherd),  the  sheep  is  grasped  by 


DIPS   AND  DIPPING. 


278 


the  hind  leg,  thrown  on  platform  "A,"  one  man  grasps  the 
hind  legs,  another  the  front,  and  the  sheep  is  gently  lifted 
into  tank  "B."  (which  is  two-thirds  full  of  dip)  with  his 
back  down,  and  is  held  in  that  position  for  two  minutes;  he 
is  then  lifted  on  the  platform  , 

"C."  the  excess  of  dip  squeez- 
ed out  by  one  hand,  turned 
over  and  the  other  side  served 
the  same  way,  the  dip  run- 
ning into  the  draining  tank 
"D."  The  dip  can  from  time 
to  time  be  returned  to  tank 
"B."  While  in  that  position 
the  sheep  can  be  examined 
for  age,  feet  trimmed  if  neces- 
sary, and  branded  by  the 
paint  pot  in  the  end  of  the 
tank.  And  here  let  me  im- 
press upon  sheep  owners  the 
necessity  of  branding  as  well 
as  ear  marking;  it  saves  an 
endless  amount  of  trouble  and 


BRAND  FOR  MARKING 
SHEEP. 

ill  feeling  should  your  sheep 

mix    with     others,    which    is 

often  the  case.    One  man  can 

brand  3.000   sheep   M'heu   run 

into   the   shoot.       Once   tried 

you  will  always  continue  the  practice.   With  this  tank  four 

men  can  dip,  mark  and  brand  500  sheep  .in  ten  or  twelve 

hours,  and  at  the  same  time  prepare  the  dip  and  sack  the 

wrool,  relieving  each  other  at  the  tank;  if  more  capacity  is 

required  another  platform  and  tank  can  be  placed  so  as  to 


274  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

?ilso  drain  into  tank  "D."  Some  sheep  men  let  go  the  sheep 
in  the  tank,  when  lie  will  quickly  turn  himself,  ami  if  scabby 
some  "special"  (i.  e.  stronger)  dip  be  applied. 

I  used  these  tanks  for  several  years  and  was  well 
pleased  with  them,  but  for  larger  herds  an  entirely  different 
tank  is  required  wherein  sheep  can  be  handled  more  expedi- 
tion sly. 

The  tank  here  described  is  now  universally  in  use: 

"A"  is  the  shoot  for  large  corral;  "B"  is  a  sloping  board 
over  which  the  sheep  in  attempting  to  pass  to  decoy  pen  '"C" 
slide  into  tank  "D"  which  is  generally  twenty  feet  long,  four 
feet  six  inches  deep,  and  sixteen  feet  at  the  bottom,  thus  giv- 
ing it  a  slope  at  the  outlet  of  four  feet,  two  feet  wide  at  the 
top,  and  eight  inches  at  bottom,  thus  compelling  the  sheep 
to  swim  in  the  middle  of  the  tank.  "E"  is  a  board  fastened  in 
the  tank  with  cleats  on  it  to  enable  the  sheep  to  obtain 
a  foothold  in  walking  out.  "P  F"  are  draining  pens  (water 
tight)  and  sloping  to  sluice  box  in  center  which  carries  the 
dip  again  into  tank  "D.  "  "C"  is  a  decoy  pen  containing  a 
few  sheep  to  entice  the  sheep  into  the  shoot.  "H"  is  a  pen 
to  dodge  into  any  sheep  not  required  to  be  dipped.  "L" 
is  the  dodge  gate.  This  tank  can  be  made  of  one-inch  pine 
boards,  and  lined  with  galvanized  iron  (No.  20  will  do),  which 
makes  it  water  tight,  and  gives  no  footing  to  the  sheep. 
"K  K"  are  pieces  of  2x6,  twelve  feet  long,  bolted  lengthwise 
of  the  tank  and  four  feet  from  each  end,  and  six  inches 
from  top  of  tank,  leaving  a  twelve  inch  space  through  which 
the  sheep  must  put  their  heads,  and  preventing  those  in  rear 
from  riding  those  in  front  and  thereby  drowning  them,  at  the 
same  time  keeping  their  backs  under  the  dip.  While  in  the 
tank  the  scab  can  be  broken  up,  teeth  looked  at,  and  as  they 
pass  out,  branded.  The  draining  pens  "F  F"  are  regulated 
by  a  gate  whereby  the  sheep  escape  from  the  draining  floors, 
and  can  then  be  combed. 

Many  dispense  with  the  sloping  board  "B"  and  use  pen 
"H,"  particularly  when  the  ewes  are  heavy  with  lamb  the 
sheep  are  dropped  carefully  into  the  tank  rump  first.  A  boy 
is  often  placed  behind  sloping  board  "B"  with  a  short  stick 
to  push  the  sheep  in  as-  they  pass  over  it.  One  or  two  men 
stand  at  the  tank  to  regulate  the  passage  of  the  sheep,  ex- 
amine teeth,  break  scab,  brand,  etc.;  2,000  is  a  usual  day's 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


work  and  that  number  can  easily  be  passed  through  this 
tank  in  ten  hours. 

A  KANSAS  SWIMMING  TANK. 

Our  friend,  David  Fox.  gives  the  following  plan  for  a 
swimming  tank : 

My  working  utensils  con- 
sist of  one  dipping  vat  (fig.  1), 
two  boilers  (fig.  2  2),  one  dip- 
ping floor  (fig.  3  3),  divided  in- 
to two  departments,  one  sheep 
yard  (fig.  8)  with  a  small  three- 
corner  pen  (fig.  9)  next  to  the 
dipping  vat,  which  is  of  great 
convenience  for  catching 
sheep;  all  of  which  are  shown 
in  diagram.  The  vat  is  made 
of  two-inch  clear  lumber,  well 
braced  and  bolted  together  so 
that  it  is  perfectly  water  tight, 
sixteen  feet  long  at  top,  twelve 
feet  long  at  bottom,  which 
gives  four  feet  slope,  with 
slats  on  the  inside  for  the 
sheep  to  walk  out  of  the  vat 
into  the  dripping  floor,  six 
inches  wide  at  the  bottom  on 
the  inside,  sixteen  inches  wide 
on  top,  four  feet  and  a  half 
in  depth.  Three  and  a  half 
feet  of  dip  is  plenty  to  work 
with,'  but  the  vat  should  be 
deep  enough  to  allow  one  foot 
above  the  dip  to  catch  the 
splashing  dip  caused  by  the 
sheep  struggling  while  in  the 
vat.  There  should  be  two  cross  bars  across  the  vat, 
at  equal  distances,  dividing  it  into  three  equal  parts 
at  the  level  of  the  dip.  At  each  division  should  be 
a  good  trusty  man.  His  duties  I  give  below.  The 
vat  is  set  in  the  ground  two  feet  and  a  half  leaving 


- 


DIPS   AND  DIPPING.  277 

two  feet  above  the  ground.    If  the  ground  is  conveniently 
located  to  lay  an  escape  pipe  to  the  bottom  of  the  vat  it 
would  be  a  great  convenience  for  cleaning  out  the  vat  after 
dipping.  This  apparatus  requires  to  be  located  where  water 
is    plenty.      Figure  "2  2"  are  the  boilers,  which  are  one  OD 
each  side  about  six  feet  from  the  vat.     They  are  made  of 
one  and  a  half  inch  lumber  for  sides.    I  bought  fourteen  foot 
planks,  sawed  them  in  two  in  the  middle  and  then  cut  a  cir- 
cle on  each  end,  then  took  sheet  iron  thirty  inches  wide  and 
eight  feet  long  and  nailed  it  solid  to  the  plank,  which  makes  the 
bottom  of  the  boiler.     Across  the  top  nail  three  pieces  of  1x4 
lumber,  at  equal  distances,  to  keep  it  from  spreading.  These 
boilers  should  be  set  on  a  furnace  built  up  two  feet  from  the 
ground  with  brick  or  stone.    The  space  between  the  two  sides 
of  the  furnace  should  be  eight  inches  narrower  thantheboiler, 
giving  four  inches  on  each  side  for  the  boiler  to  rest  on.  The 
furnace  should  be  open  at  each  end  and  a  flue  made  of 
sheet  iron  seven  feet  long,  and  one  made  to  fit  either  end  of 
the  furnace,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  clrariged  from  one  end  to 
the  other  to  correspond  with  the  direction  of  tlm  wind.     This 
flue  being  seven  feet  high  will  conduct  the  smoke  out  of  the 
way  of  men  and  sheep.  Fig.  "7  7"  is  a  pipe  running  from  boil- 
ers to  vat  to  conduct  the  dip  from  boilers  into  the  vat.    One 
end  of  the  pipe  should  be  set  into  the  side  of  the  boiler  even 
with  the  bottom;  the  other  end  let  in  the  side  of  the  vat,  by 
means  of  a  notch  cut  two  inches  deep.    The  pipe  should  be 
just,  even  with  the  inside  of  the  vat  so  as  to  be  out  of  the 
way  of  the  men  and  sheep.    The  bottom  of  the  boiler  being 
just  the  same  height  as  the  top  of  the  vat,  the  two-inch  notch 
cut  in  the  vat  will  give  fall  enough  for  the  pipe  to  empty  th« 
boiler.   There  can  be  a  faucet  put  in  the  pipe  next  the  boiler 
or  anywhere  between  the  boiler  and  vat,  to  turn  on  and  shut 
off  the  dip.     Fig.  "3  3"  is  the  dipping  floor  which  is  sixteen 
feet  square,  made  of  flooring  well  braced  underneath  with 
joists,  and  set  up  on  a  foundation  high  enough  for  the  bottom 
of  the  dripper  to  rest  on  the  vat.    The  foundation  around 
the  outside  of  the  dripper  should  be  built  about  three  inches 
higher  than  the  supports  under  the  center  so  as  to  spring 
the  floor  enough  to  make  the  dip  run  toward  the  center, 
with  a.  strip  across  the  two  corners  next  to  the  vat,  to  con- 
duct the  drippings  from  tlie  sheep  into  the  vat.     This  drip- 


278  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

ping  floor  should  be  inclosed  by  fence.  Fig.  "5"  is  a  panel 
fence  fourteen  feet  long  placed  across  the  center  of  the  drip- 
ping floor.  Two  of  the  bottom  boards  of  the  fence  of  the  drip- 
per on  the  side  next  to  the  vat  should  be  cut  out  the  width 
of  the  vat,  and  a  small  gate  (fig.  6)  fastened  to  the  division 
panel  so  that  it  can  be  swung  to  either  side  of  the  vat,  that 
when  one  part  of  the  dripper  is  filled  with  sheep  this  gate- 
can  be  swung  around,  closing  the  pen  that  the  sheep  are  in 
and  leaving  the  other  side  open  for  the  sheep  to  go  in.  By 


HERDWICK   RAM. 

the  time  this  last  half  of  the  dripper  is  filled  with  sheep 
the  first  lot  will  be  ready  to  go  out,  and  continue  in  like  man- 
ner until  dripping  is  finished.  Fig.  "44"  are  gates  to  let 
the  sheep  out  of  the  dripper.  Fig.  "8"  is  the  yard  for  the 
sheep  before  the  dipping  is  commenced.  It  should  be 
built  so  as  to  make  a  small,  three-cornered  pen  (fig.  9)  next 
to  the  vat,  large  enough  to  hold  fifty  or  seventy-five  sheep 
which  would  be  handy  to  the  vat  and  easy  to  catch.  This 
yard  should  be  made  penitentiary  tight  and  strong  so  that 
it  is  impossible  for  any  sheep  to  escape  undipped.  Should  a 
single  sheep  get  out  and  get  with  those  already  dipped, 
unnoticed,  that  had  a  single  living  female  acarus  on  it,  it 
would  in  a  short  time  infect  the  whole  flock:  hence  the  im- 
portance of  thoroughness  from  beginning  to  end.  Now, 
with  the  above  arrangements  and  the  dip  hot,  you  are  ready 


DIPS   AND   DIPPING.  279 

for  work.  If  desired  to  be  run  to  the  full  capacity,  which  is 
about  one  thousand  sheep  per  day,  six  good,  strong  men.  will 
be  needed,  one  to  attend  the  tire  and  foresee  the  work  and 
see  that  every  man  does  his  duty.  This  overseer  should  be 
the  owner  of  the  sheep  or  the  one  most  interested.  If  the 
sheep  are  very  scabby  two  men  should  be  stationed  in  the 
sheep  pen  with  a  currycomb  or  stiff  brush  to  thoroughly 
scratch  and  break  up  every  scabby  patch  on  the  sheep, 
then  put  it  in  the  vat  head  first.  Now,  the  man  who  stands 
at  the  first  division  of  the  vat  takes  charge  of  the  sheep 
and  thoroughly  rubs  all  the  scabby  spots,  and  moves  it  easily 
up  and  down  in  the  dip  in  order  that  the  dip  can  penetrate 
all  wrinkles  and  folds.  This  man  should  occupy  fully  one 
minute  with  each  sheep,  then  pass  it  under  the  crossbar  to 
the  next  man  who  handles  it  in  the  same  manner  and  the 
same  length  of  time,  then  passes  it  to  the  third  man 
who  does  likewise.  There  is  room  for  two  sheep  in  each 
department  of  the  vat  at  the  same  time,  and  one  man  can  at- 
tend two  nearly  as  well  as  one.  It  will  be  found  very  impor- 
tant to  have  those  crossbars  in  the  vat,  or  the  sheep  will 
all  rush  to  the  other  end  of  the  vat  and  will  climb  on  each 
other,  and  it  would  be  very  hard  for  the  men  to  hold  them 
back  and  thoroughly  soak  them.  If  only  dipping  for  a 
preventive  for  ticks  or  lice,  one  man  in  the  sheep  pen  will 
put  them  in  the  vat  fast  enough;  also  one  man  can  attend 
them  along  the  vat  and  one  dipping  will  be  sufficient,  but  for 
scab  it  requires  two  dippings  from  eight  to  ten  days  apart. 
If  these  directions  are  carried  out  I  am  positive  it  will  cure 
the  worst  case  of  scab,  as  I  have  cured  thousands  for  myself 
and  neighbors  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  here  de- 
scribed. This  apparatus,  if  well  taken  care  of,  will  last  for 
years  and  would  serve  a  number  of  flockmasters.  If  the 
flock  is  small  this  apparatus  can  be  built  on  a  smaller  scale, 
or  larger  to  suit  the  number  of  sheep  that  are  to  be  dipped. 

A  HAND  DIPPING  TANK. 

After  an  exciting  contest  for  the  one-hundred-dollar  ster- 
ling silver  cup  offered,  some  months  ago,  by  Mr.  Cooper  for 
the  best  farm  dipping-plant,  the  prize  was  won  by  Mr.  W.  B. 
Vestal,  of  Plainfield,  Ind.  The  following  are  the  plans  and 
specifications  given  by  Mr.  Vestal: 


280 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


We  have  a  dipping  outfit  which  I  made  ami  which  any 
farmer  can  make  at  small  cost,  and  it  answers  the  purpose. 
Two  men,  one  on  each  side  of  the  vat  and  our  little  nine- 
year-old  Willie  to  keep  the  sheep  massed  in  the  chute,  will 
handle  them  at  the  rate  of  about  one  sheep  every  four  or 
five  minutes,  and  that  will  allow  the  sheep  to  remain  in  the 


dip    two    minutes,    "by    the    watch,"    and    should    not    be 
guessed  at. 

To  make  the  dipping-vat  use  2x4  stuff;  cut  eight  pieces 
4  feet  2  inches  long,  and  four  pieces  20  inches  long,  and 
frame  by  halving  together,  as  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2.  Now 
take  the  four  frames  and  set  them  on  a  level  floor,  and  nail 
temporary  strip  on  the  outside  to  keep  them  in  position.  Use 


DIPS  AND  DIPPING.  281 

first-class  flooring  for  sides  and  ends;  paint  tongues  and 
groove  as  you  put  them  on;  commence  at  the  bottom,  grooved 
side  down  (plain  the  groove  off  the  first  boards),  and  build 
up,  letting  the  ends  extend  past  the  posts  at  each  end  so 
that  they  may  be  sawed  off  afterwards  to  insure  a  good  joint 
at  the  corners.  The  bottom  should  be  l%xG  inches,  with  the 
edges  beveled  to  correspond  with  the  flare  of  the  sides. 
Draw  down  with  %  bolts  and  nail  the  side  planks  to  the  edge 
of  bottom  board,  and  you  will  have  a  water-tight  joint. 
Now  after  sawing  the  side  planks  flush  with  the  outside  of 
end  posts,  seal  up  ends  on  outside  o-f  posts.  Paint  the  inside 
thoroughly,  and  you  will  have  a  water-tight  box.  You  can 
nail  quarter-round-  in  the  corners  ; '  necessary,  but  ours  has 
none,  and  does  not  leak,  and  has  been  in  use  for  three  years. 
I  like  the  dipping-vat  8  feet  lomz,  so  as  to  allow  an  incline 
for  sheep  to  walk  out  on.  They  will  climb  out  with  little 
assistance  if  so  arranged.  We  have  a  small  tackle  hung 
near  the  exit  end  of  the  vat,  so  that  in  handling  very  heavy 
sheep  we  have  a,  saddle  girth,  with  ring  on  each  end,  which 
^we  put  under  the  sheep  behind  the  forelegs;  hook  the  tackle 
into  the  rings,  and  one  man  will. easily  lift  a  300-pound  sheep; 
but  we  seldom  use  the  tackle,  as  the  sheep  naturally  walk 
out  with  little  assistance  (and  300-pound  sheep  are  very 
scarce  with  us;  we  have  not  succeeded  in  raising  many  of 
that  kind).  We  let  the  vat  into  the  ground  2  feet,  so  the  top 
stands  2  feet  above  the  surface.  Bore  an  inch  hole  in  bottom 
to  drain  oft'  liquid  when  done  (1  inch,  so  that  it  may  be 
stopped  with  a  corn  cob);  bury  an  old  box  or  barrel  a  short 
distance  from  the  vat,  and  make  a  drain  from  the  hole  in 
vat  to  it,  and  there  will  be  no  danger  of  chickens  or  other 
stock  drinking  it. 

In  Fig.  3  I  have  tried  to  give  an  inside  view  of  the  vat, 
and  in  Fig.  4  a  side  elevation  before  being  let  into  the  ground 
or  floor.  From  the  exit  end  of  the  vat  extends  the  draining- 
table,  which  should  be  about  4  feet  wide  and  of  any  desired 
length,  with  the  outer  end  elevated  so  as  to  drain  back  iinu 
the  vat  with  a  strainer  to  catch  any  filth  that  might  accumu- 
late on  the  table. 

I  will  endeavor  to  illustrate  in  Figs.  5  and  6  how  to  build 
the  draining-table.  Use  for  sills  2x0  inch  at  intervals  of  2 
feet  to  nail  the  floor  to.  Say  you  make  the  first  section  14 


282  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP- 

feet;  you  can  let  the  next  lap  on  the  first  and  extend  as  fai- 
ns you  desire.  Shape  the  sills  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  and  regu- 
late the  pitch  by  the  length  of  the  legs  as  shown  in  Fig.  0. 
Set  the  sills  in  line,-  nail  temporary  strips  on  ends  to  hold 
in  position  and  proceed  to  floor,  taking  care  to  paint  well 
the  tongues  and  grooves,  and  when  done  give  two  good  coats 
of  paint  to  prevent  shrinking  and  swelling.  The  legs  may 
extend  upward  for  post  to  nail  planks'  to  prevent  the  sheep 


1   M I y  Ml U     I U— i |>»siaa— 1 M  I 

y       f  •"•••  i       J] 


•l 


It-' 


F16-  ?• 

jumping  off.  A  small  gate  or  bar  at  the  end  to  let  them  out 
when  they  cease  to  drip  completes  the  drainiug-table.  Fig. 
7  shows  draining  surface  of  the  table.  We  find  14  feet  of 
'Training-table  is  sufficient  for  our  use.  We  do  not  consider 
it  any  great  job  to  dip  our  little  flock  of  100  to  150  sheep. 

SHEARING. 

This  harvesting  of  the  wool  crop,  as  it  may  be  termed, 
is  one  of  the  important  parts  of  the  shepherd's  industry. 
It  is  really  his  harvest  time,  and  'it  goes  very  naturally 
that  in  the  advance  of  mechanical  methods,  the  machine  now 


284  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

in  use  for  gathering  this  harvest,  is  made  on  precisely  the 
same  principle  as  the  mower  and  the  harvester.  That  is, 
that  the  reciprocating  cutting  blade,  is  of  the  same  form 
and  has  the  same  action  as  those  machines.  It  is  somewhat 
of  a  reproach  to  the  enterprise  of  American  shepherds,  that 
although  a  machine  for  shearing  on  this  principle  was  in- 
vented and  made  over  twenty  years  ago,  when  the  author 
used  it,  and  probably  sheared  the  first  sheep  by  machine, 
in  this  or  any  other  country,  it  has  been  in  long  use  in 
Australia,  and  is  only  recently  in  use  on  our  American  sheep 
ranches.  But  it  has  come,  and  come  to  stay,  and  as  but  little 
power  is  needed  to  run  it,  and  it  does  the  work  quickly  and 
with  perfect  safety  to  the  sheep,  it  may  be  profitably  used 
even  on  comparatively  small  sheep  farms.  This  same  ma- 
chine has  been  in  use  for  clipping  horses,  and  even  in  the 
barber  shops  of  our  large  cities,  while  it  has  been  neglected 
until  now  by  our  sheep  men.  The  now  perfected  machine 
will  be  a  considerable  saving  of  expense,  and  unquestiona- 
bly will  be  utilized  much  in  the  same  way  as  the  peripatetic 
thrashing  machine  is,  that  is,  carried  from  farm  to  farm  to 
do  the  work  where  it  will  not  be  profitable  to  keep  the  outfit 
especially  for  one's  own  use. 

The  method  of  shearing  on  a  large  sheep  ranch  is  shown 
in  detail  at  fig.  34.  The  cost  of  this  special  operation  is  about 
three  cents  per  head  for  the  shearing  only.  The  work  done 
includes  the  shearing,  tagging,  rolling  the  fleece,  and  pack- 
ing them  into  sacks,  when  they  are  weighed  and  ready  for 
shipment.  The  sheep  in  this  case  are  sheared  unwashed, 
and  on  the  whole  this  plan,  which  is  the  same  as  that  adopt- 
ed on  the  great  sheep  runs  in  Australia,  is  the  most  economi- 
cal. The  picture  sufficiently  explains  the  whole  business, 
from  the  penning  of  the  sheep  to  the  sacking  of  the  wool  for 
shipment. 

SHEARING  Bl   HAND. 

The  beginner  wrill  be  more  interested  in  this  method  of 
hand  shearing  as  it  is  best  adapted  for  small  flocks.  The 
sheep  are  penned  in  any  convenient  way  near  the  shearing 
floor,  which— by  the  way— must  be  kept  clean  by  sweeping 
up  the  refuse,  the  tags  being  gathered  by  a  boy  along  Avith 
the  sweepings,  and  afterwards  hand-washed.  The  sheep  is 


I 


286  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

first  set  up  on  its  rump,  when  the  shearer  cuts  the  wool 
down  the  belly  to  the  sides,  around  the  throat,  and  to  the 
neck.  The  sheep  is  then  quietly  held  on  its  side,  and  the 
wool  loosened  to  the  back  bone  and  a  little  over  it,  as  seen 
where  the  stooping  shearer  is  at  work.  The  sheep  is  then 


FIG.  33.— Hand  Shearing. 

.turned  over,  and  the  fleece  cut  on  the  other  side.  In  this 
sort  of  shearing  one  must  carefully  avoid  under  cutting, 
that  is,  cutting  the  wool  above  the  skin  by  taking  too  deep 
a  cut,  or  holding  the  shears  with  the  points  too  high.  This 
either  leaves  ridges  in  the  wool  left  on  the  sheep,  or  double 
cuts  it,  making  a  waste. 

A  convenient  tagging  bench  is  shown  at  figure  35.  This 
is  used  to  hold  the  sheep  while  the  tag  locks  are  removed. 
The  sheep  is  then  passed  over  to  the  shearing  bench  on  which 
it  lies  more  comfortably  and  easy,  and  is  consequently  less 


SHEARING. 


287 


restless  than  on  a  flat  floor.     It  is  also  more  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  s'hearer,  who  by  slipping  a  strap  over  the  neck 

holds  the  sheep  better  and 
without  struggling,  as  it  may 
otherwise.  When  the  fleeces 
are  removed  from  the  sheep 
they  are  folded  by  turning 
over  the  sides  and  rolling  them 
into  a  compact  bundle  (fig.  37) 
which  is  tied  at  each  end 
with  soft  wool  twine.  They  are 
then  ready  for  storing  or  for 
selling.  If  stored  they  should 
not  be  kept  in  too  dry  a  place. 


FIG.  35.— Tagging  Bench. 


or  they  will  have  a  harsh  feeling  when  the  buyer  comes 
around,  or  they  are  sent  for  sale.  A  shaded  shed  is  a  good 
place  to  keep  them  in,  in  which  they  will  not  dry  out  too 
much.  A  moderate  degree  of  dampness  is  requisite  to  pre- 
serve the  softness  of  the  wool,  and  its  elasticity  and  strength 
of  fiber.  It  has  been  found,  that  by  over  dryness,  wool  will 


FIG.  36.— Shearing  Bench. 

lose  one-fourth  of  its  strength,  just  as  a  sliver  of  elastic  woo;l 
will  become  hard  and  brittle  by  overdrying.  The  moisture 
natural  to  the  wool  is  to  be  preserved  while  it  is  in  storage. 

A  few  words  might  be  said  just  here  in  regard  to  a  rep- 
rehensible practice  of  shearing,  the  intention  of  which  is  to 
disguise  the  form  of  the  sheep  and  give  to  it  false  and  de- 
ceptive appearance  by  which  judges  at  the  exhibitions  may  be 
induced  to  estimate  the  animals  so  disguised  above  their  real 
character.  It  consists  in  leaving  the  fleece,  at  the  shearing 


288 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


longer  in  some  parts  of  the  body  than  in  others,  so  as 
to  increase  the  value  of  special  points  of  excellence  in  the 
form,  as  well  as  to  add  to  the  length  of  the  staple.  This 
nefarious  trick  is  common  in  the  English  exhibitions,  and  is 
winked  at  by  the  judges,  so  that  the  most  skillful  adept  in 
this  distortion  of  the  form  secures  the  prizes  and  leaves 
the  honest  exhibitor  in  an  undeserved  low  position.  It  has 
been  known  too  that  exhibitors  have  descended  to  the  low 
trick  of  washing  their  show  sheep,  and  coloring  the  fleece 
with  yellow  ocher  and  oil,  so  as  to  give  a  false  appearance 


FIG.  37.— Tying  Fleeces. 

and  feel  to  the  wool.  It  is  well  that  judges  at  exhibitions 
should  be  cautious  to  inspect  the  stock  and  be  about  in  good 
season,  and  at  times  when  these  tricks  may  be  practiced 
by  the  shepherds  in  charge  of  the  sheep  in  the  various  pens. 
And  while  this  deception  may  not  be  frequently  practiced, 
yet  it  is  well  that  all  concerned  should  be  on  the  lookout 
for  it,  and  insist  on  the  disqualification  of  the  animals  so 
distorted,  and  levy  a  substantial  fine  on  the  delinquents. 
This  is  simply  a  matter  of  justice  to  all  honest  exhibitors. 
The  author  is  free  to  say,  and  happy  to  testify,  that  this 
practice  is  by  no  means  common  at  our  exhibitions,  but  still 


SORTING   WOOL. 


289 


it  has  been  known  to  have  been  effective  in  misleading 
judges  who  have  been  careless  in  giving  thorough  examina- 
tion to  the  sheep  in  the  pens.  At  the  same  time  exhibitors 
should  take  all  honest  means  to  put  their  sheep  in  the  best 
condition  for  the  examination  by  the  judges;  for  it  some- 
times happens  that  the  best  may  lose  position  for  want  of 
being  duly  prepared  for  the  competition. 

SORTING  WOOL. 

There  are  several  qualities  of  wool  in  a  sheep's  fleece.  The 
character  of  the  fiber  varies  the  least  in  the  Merino  breeds, 
more  in  the  coarse  wools,  but  most  in  the  common  natives. 
But  in  all  there  is  a  difference.  This  is  best  seen  in  the 
illustration,  fig.  38,  of  what  is  known  as  a  skirted  fleece. 
This  is  an  Australian  fleece,  and  it  is  to  this  method  of  sort- 
ing the  wool  of  a  fleece  that  our  tariff  is  applied.  The  skirted 


Vool 


2:  3 


2  |  3  ) 

.—•--•* 


FIG.  38.— A  Skirted  Fleece. 

1,  Firsts,  neck  and  skirts;  2,  Second  pieces :  3,  Third  pieces;  4,  Stained 
wool;  5,  Belly  wool;  6,  Broken  wool;  7,  Skirted  wool. 

wool  being  the  best  part  of  the  fleece,  is  subject  to  the 
highest  import  duty,  on  account  of  the  higher  value  of  it. 
The  fleece  being  laid  on  the  \vool-sorter' s  table,  this  expert 
individual  tears  it  to  pieces,  separating  the  various  qualities, 
as  if  by  instinct,  into  the  different  grades.  These  are  men- 
tioned under  the  engraving. 

This  example  is  an  object  lesson  to  the  breeder  whose 
ambition  and  business  it. is  to  improve  his  flock.  For  it  is 
evident,  the  more  tho  fleece  mav  contain  of  the  No.  7 


290  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

wool,  as  it  is  here  numbered,  the  higher  the  value  of  it  will 
be.  And  the  more  of  the  coarser  wool  in  the  fleece  the  less  its 
value,  and  of  course  of  the  sheep,  as  well  as  of  its  wool. 
*the  Merino  sheep,  in  all  its  several  varieties,  is  an  interest- 
ing example  of  the  skill  of  the  breeders  by  which  these  sheep 
are  clothed  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  hoofs,  with  valua- 
ble wool.  There  is  thus  a  great  difference  between  a  pure 
Merino  and  a  grade.  But  by  breeding  up  of  the  flock  by  the 
use  of  the  best  selected  sheep,  chosen  for  this  high  grade  of 
fleece,  it  is  evident  that  the  special  wool  grower  may  in  a 
few  years  so  grade  up  his  flock  as  to  largely  increase  the 
value  of  it  by  the  better  wool  grown.  It  will  be  a  useful 
study  for  the  intelligent  shepherd  to  examine  carefully  this 
diagram  of  the  skirted  fleece,  and  apply  the  hints  it  will 
afford  to  his  culture  of  his  flock. 

PULLED  WOOL. 

A  large  quantity  of  what  is  known  as  pulled  wool  is  al- 
ways on  the  market.  This  is  taken  from  the  skins  of 
slaughtered  sheep,  and— sad  to  say— from  the  thousands  of 
sheep  that  are  lost  every  year  by  the  neglect  of  their  owners. 
The  wool  is  loosened  by  the  application  to  the  back  of  the 
skin  of  thin  lime  paste.  This  is  one  of  the  examples  of  the 
detrimental  effect  of  lime  to  the  skin  of  a  living  animal,  as 
well  as  its  usefulness  in  this  special  instance.  The  wool  is 
also  loosened  from  the  skins  by  laying  them  when  wet  in 
heaps-  one  on  another.  The  pelts  of  course  sweat  and 
partly  decompose  as  to  the  epidermis,  which  as  has  been 
explained  previously  in  this  chapter,  is  the  part  in  which 
the  wool  fibers  are  rooted.  The  sweating  of  the  skins  in  this 
process  causes  the  wool  to  loosen,  so  that  it  may  be  easily 
removed,  without  seriously  affecting  the  value  of  it.  Thus 
the  market  value  of  pulled  wool  may  vary  considerably  with 
the  skillfulness  or  otherwise  of  this  process  of  separation. 
The  wool  of  a  sheep,  dead  of  any  disease,  is  materially  re- 
duced in  value,  and  the  more  so  as  tho  kind  of  disease  may 
happen  to  be.  Sheep  dying  of  any  contagious  disease,  such 
as  anthrax  especially,  is  frequently  the  cause  of  the  infection 
of  the  handlers  of  the  skins  or  wool.  The  almost  invariably 
wool-sorter's  disease,  as  it  is  called,  is  precisely  this  same 
disease  of  which  the  sheep  died,  and  is  one  of  the  most 


CARE  OF  THE  SHEARED  SHEEP.  291 

dreadful  of  all  causes  of  death.  It  is  accompanied  by  blood 
poisoning,  of  which  the  results  are  most  painful  boils  and 
carbuncles  appearing  all  over  the  body,  and  which  produce 
such  severe  shock  to  the  sufferer,  that  death  is  almost  cer- 
tain. Recovery  is  rare,  and  the  sufferings  of  the  unfortunate 
victim  of  the  ignorant  or  thoughtless  owner  of  the  dead 
sheep,  are  so  severe  as  to  be  a  caution  to  all  concerned,  never 
'to  touch  a  sheep  dead  of  this  disease  except  with  a  long  pole, 
as  the  saying  is,  to  turn  it  into  a  deep  hole  dug  on  the  spot 
where  it  is  buried  safely.  But  all  contact  of  the  hands  with 
the  carcass  is  to  be  most  carefully  avoided. 

CAKE  OF  THE  SHEARED  SHEEP. 

As  our  shearing  time  occurs  in  a  favorable  season  of  the 
year,  but  little  need  be  said  as  to  the  care  of  the  newly-shorn 
flock.  Necessarily  some  thought  is  to  be  given  to  this,  in  the 
way  of  protection  against  unfavorable  weather.  Warm  rain 
is  not  hurtful,  but  rather  the  opposite.  Cold  rain  is  to  be 
avoided,  and  if  it  happens,  the  sheep  should  be  sheltered 
for  a  short  time  until  they  have  become  used  to  their 
thin  Summer  clothing.  The  English  shepherds  smear  the 
sheep  with  some  kind  of  cheap  grease,  mostly  the  waste  but- 
ter purchased  at  a  low  price  from  the  dealers.  We  might 
say  with  some  sort  of  truth  that  there  is  an  abundant  supply 
of  this  article  to  be  procured  here,  as  well  as  in  other  coun- 
tries, and  if  such  waste  stuff  might  be  thought  desirable  to 
shed  the  rain  from  the  bared  sheep,  it  would  not  cost  much 
to  procure  and  use  it.  Cuts  that  have  been  made  should  be 
treated  with  some  antiseptic  ointment,  or  tar,  either  will  be 
advisable,  as  a  protection  against  the  flies,  which  might 
blow  the  sheep  and  cause  serious  trouble.  The  application 
will  tend  to  the  quick -healing  of  any  wounds  that  may 
have  been  given  in  the  shearing. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
MINOR  BRITISH  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP. 

THE  HERUWICK 

in  M  hardy,  active,  resolute  and  self-helpful  race  of  sheep, 
pure  bred,  highly  prized  aud  most  common  in  the  beautiful 
lake  and  hill  country  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland 
counties  where  tradition  says  they  were  first  introduced  by 
the  escape  of  some  forty  sheep  from  the  wreck  of  Spanish 
galleons  on  the  Cumberland  coast  in  1588,  since  which  period 
they  have  been  assiduously  cultivated  by  the  northern  hill 
farmers.  The  characteristics  of  the  breed  are  well  outlined 
by  Mr.  Jas.  Bowstead,  a  very  competent  authority,  as  fol- 
lows: "The  essential  points  of  a  Herdwick  are  a  heavy  fleece 
of  fairly  strong  wool  disposed  to  be  hairy  on  the  top  of  the 
shoulder,  growing  well  down  to  the  knees  and  hocks,  pole 
and  belly  well  covered,  a  broad,  bushy  tail,  aud  a,  well  de- 
fined topping  broad  head,  nose  arched,  or  Roman,  nostrils 
aud  mouth  wide,  teeth  broad  and  short,  jaws  deep,  showing 
strength  of  constitution  and  determination,  eye  prominent 
and  lively,  and  in  the  male,  defiant;  ears  white,  fine,  erect 
and  always  moving,  as  has  been  said  like  a  butterfly's  wing. 
The  color  or  markings  of  the  face  and  legs  is  very  important. 
There  should  be  no  spots  or  speckles,  nor  any  token  of 
brown,  as  these  are  considered  sure  tokens  of  a  cross.  When 
the  lambs  are  born  their  legs  and  heads  should  be  perfectly 
black,  with  the  exception  of  a  little  white  on  the  tips  of  the 
ears,  and  perhaps  a  few  white  hairs  round  the  feet.  These 
white  hairs  gradually  increase,  so  that  at  six  months  old, 
one-third  or  one-half  the  ear  will  be  hoar-frosted,  and  there 
will  be  distinct  bands  of  the  same  round  the  feet,  shading 
off  to  the  black  of  the  leg,  and  by  this  time  also  about 
an  inch  of  the  muzzle  will  have  become  frosted  too.  This 
change  of  color  goes  on  until  some,  at  the  age  of  three  years, 
are  perfectly  white,  while  others  remain  a  kind  of  steel 


294  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

gray.  Horns  in  the  ram  are  desirable,  but  not  essential, 
and  undoubtedly  add  much  to  tli<;:  appearance,  but  other- 
wise are  not  much  valued.  White  hoofs  are  much  preferred. 
*****  There  are  many  yeomen  in  the  dales  of  Cum- 
berland and  Westmoreland  whose  flocks  have  been  handed 
down  from  father  to  son  for  generations  without  a  blot  or 
stain  on  their  pedigrees,  and  he  would  bo  a  degenerate  son 
who  would  dare  to  try  a  cross."  The  Herdwick,  like  most 
of  the  mountain  sheep,  is  distinctively  a  mutton  sheep, 
much  prized  for  the  fine  flavor  of  its  flesh. 

THE  RYELAND  SHEEP 

The  old  Ryeland  was  well  scattered  over  Staffordshire, 
Shropshire,  Monmouthshire,  Herefordshire  and  Gloucester- 
shire a  century  and  more  ago,  and  as  early  as  1800  num- 
bered 500,000  in  Herefordshire  alone,  but  for  some  reason 
fell  into  disfavor  and  decline  almost  to  the  point  of  extinc- 
tion. It  was  medium  sized,  ruining  from  12  to  15  Ibs. 
to  the  quarter  in  the  wether,  and  10  to  12  Ibs.  in  the  ewe, 
was  white-faced  and  polled,  with  small  clean  legs,  light 
bone,  compact,  round  body,  a  2  Ib.  fleece  of  very  fine  wool, 
had  great  powers  of  endurance,  and  so  much  favored  the 
Merino  in  appearance,  character  and  habit,  as  to  suggest 
a  possible  foreign  origin. 

THE  NEW  RYELAND, 

while  holding  some  of  the  better  characteristics  of  its  less 
showy  and  less  pretentious  ancestor,  has  greater  size,  sym- 
metry and  weight  of  fleece,  lambs  under  12  months  yielding 
as  high  as  18  Ibs.  per  quarter,  and  yearlings  20  to  24  Ibs.  to 
the  quarter,  the  fleece,  though  not  so  fine  as  in  the  older  breed, 
ranging  from  6  to  8  Ibs.  The  New  Ryeland,  which  doubtless 
owes  much  of  its  fine  size  and  style  to  early  Leicester 
crosses,  is  still  hornless  and  white-faced,  with  short,  close, 
even  wool,  and  is  clearly  a  distinct  breed,  quite  unlike  any 
other.  It  fattens  with  remarkable  facility,  matures  quickly, 
yields  an  excellent  quality  of  flesh  and  is  fast  coming  into 
favor  for  its  inherent  value,  as  a  wool  and  mutton  sheep, 
and  especially  for  crossing  on  other  breeds.  Mr.  Frank 
Shepherd,  who  has  had  a  life-long  association  with  the  breed, 
says:  "The  Ryeland  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  British  breeds  of 
sheep,  and  to  my  mind  is  one  of  the  best  all-round  breeds 


RYELA^D  RAM. 


LONK  HAM. 


296  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

we  have,  producing  mutton  and  wool  of  the  finest  quality, 
with  great  constitution,  invaluable  for  crossing  purposes. 
It  is  a  common  saying  in  Hereford  market  that  'no  sheep  will 
get  fat  lambs  like  a  Ryeland  ram.'  The  Ryeland  of  to-day 
is  a  much  heavier  sheep  than  was  the  case  thirty  or  forty 
years  ago  and  arrives  earlier  at  maturity — compact  in  form, 
straight  back,  sides  and  underline,  on  short,  well-set,  white 
legs,  a  white  face,  thick  scrag,  and  head  well  covered  with 
wool.  No  better  wool  is  grown  on  any  sheep.  As  a  hardy, 
farmer's  rent-paying  sheep,  I  have  no  hesitation  in  giving 
the  preference  to  the  Ryeland."  Such  is  a  brief  outline 
of  the  history  and  characteristics  of  a  breed  of  sheep  des- 
tined to  hold  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  world's  future  sheep 
farming. 

Among  the  minor  English  breeds,  which  have  in  recent 
years  been  honored  with  a  class  at  the  Royal  and  other 
shows,  is 

THE  LONK, 

of  which  the  following  mention  is  made  by  Mr.  Dixon  in  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society's  Journal:  "The  hill  ranges  of 
Yorkshire  and  Lancashire  are  believed  to  be  the  earliest  home 
of  the  Lonks.  We  find  them  extending  north  from  Clitheroe, 
over  the  forest  of  Bowland  towards  Lancaster,  east  of  Colne 
and  Skipton  as  far  as  Keighley  and  Ben  Rhydding,  and 
south  along  the  'back-bone  of  England'  by  Pendle  Hill,  Burn- 
ley, Todmorden  and  Bacup,  almost  to  Blackstone  Edge.  The 
Penistone  breed,  a  shorter  and  thicker  description  of  Lonk. 
there  hold  the  hills.  Derbyshire  also  has  Lonks  on  most  of 
its  hills  and  peaks,  and  its  flockmasters  often  go  over  to 
report  progress  at  the  Craven  Show."  Youatt  undoubtedly 
refers  to  the  Lonks  in  the  following  note:  "In  the  West  Rid- 
ing of  Yorkshire  and  on  the  border  of  Lancashire,  a  breed  of 
short-wooled  sheep  has  existed  from  time  immemorial.  They 
are  horned,  with  mottled  faces  and  legs;  some  of  them,  how- 
ever, are  white-faced.  It  has  been  crossed  more  toward  the 
south  of  the  Riding  with  the  Cheviot  and  Leicester,  both  of 
which  have  improved  it.  Towards  the  north  it  has  been 
oftener  crossed  with  the  Heath  sheep,  and  then  the  legs  and 
faces  are  black,  gray  or  spotted."  Prof.  Wrightson 
says  of  the  breed:  "The  Lonks  are  a  distinct  breed,  and  are 
most  valued  on  low-lying,  damp  and  mossy  land.  They  are 


298  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

like  the  Heath  sheep,  black  and  white  faced,  horned  in 
both  sexes,  carrying  a  superior  fleece  of  fine,  moderately  long 
wool,  which  is  closer  in  texture,  more  springy  and  elastic 
than  the  wool  of  the  Scotch  Black-faces.  The  breed  is 
peculiar  for  resisting  the  effects  of  a  damp  soil.  The  Lonk  is 
a  larger,  thicker  made,  and  better  wooled  sheep  than  the 
Scotch  Black-faced,  and  was  well  represented  at  the  show  of 
the  Royal  at  Chester  in  1893." 

THE  ROSCOMMON 

of  to-day  is  a  comparatively  recent  and  very  great  improve- 
ment on  the  old,  large,  raw-boned,  ungainly  native  sheep  of 
Connaught,  the  chief  sheep  raising  province  of  Ireland.  The 
earliest  modification  of  the  ugly  old  Connaughters,  both  in 
form  and  fleece,  was  effected  by  Leicester  rams  skillfully 
mated  with  native  ewes  by  the  most  intelligent  breeders 
of  Roscommon  County.  Later  improvement  came  by  careful 
selection,  resulting  in  a  stately,  massive  sheep  of  command- 
ing presence,  noble,  if  not  handsome.  Yearling  grass  fed 
wethers  yield  25  and  30  Ibs.  and  older  ewes  from  30  to  40 
Ibs.  to  the  quarter  of  superior  mutton.  Early  maturity,  too, 
seems  characteristic  of  these  sheep  which  carry  7  to  10 
Ib.  fleeces  of  soft,  pliable,  lustrous  long  staple  wool.  Not 
alone  to  favoring  crosses  and  selection  are  due  the  stately 
and  massive  form  and  rich  fleece  of  the  modern  Roscommon. 
Environments — salt  sea  breezes,  with  their  favoring  humidity, 
the  rich  herbage  and  browse,  the  soils,  geology  and  topog- 
raphy of  Connaught— have  had  much  to  do  with  the  develop- 
ment of  this  breed  of  sheep  into  its  noble  proportions.  The 
Roscommon  is  rather  large  for  the  present  English  mutton 
fashion,  but  fashion  may  change  to  suit  the  noble  Roscom- 
mon, or  the  Roscommcn  may  change  to  suit  the  fashion. 
This  is  an  age  of  marvels  in  sheep  evolution  and  changes 
follow  each  other  thick  and  fast. 

THE  RADNOR 

is  a  native  of  Radnor,  Merioneth,  Montgomery  and  Breck- 
nock Counties,  Wales,  and  one  of  the  old  mountain  breeds, 
originally  very  small,  but  now  bred  up  to  medium  size  and 
good  form  through  Leicester  and  Shropshire  crosses,  until 
at  maturity  (three  or  four  years  old)  the  well  bred  and  well 
fed  wether  turns  a  twelve  to  fifteen  Ib.  quarter  and  the  ewe 


300  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

a  nine  to  twelve  Ib.  dressed  quarter.  The  ewes  are  prolific, 
good  milkers  and  mothers  and  are  much  sought  after  by 
feeders  in  the  near  English  counties  for  raising  mutton 
lambs.  Like  all  the  Welsh  sheep  of  the  mountains,  the  llod- 
.nor,  though  not  a  ready  feeder,  is  a  producer  of  high  quality 
mutton.  The  old  native  Radnor  carried  a  veiy  large  heavily 
wooled  tail  and  was  hairy  at  breach  and  breast,'  but  his  mod- 
ern descendent  carries  a  4  or  5  Ib.  fleece  of  tine  quality 
wool,  horns  in  the  ram,  ewes  polled,  but  sometimes  with  rudi- 
mental  horns,  ablack  face,  vary  ing  to  tan,  gray  and  even  white, 
and  a  light  fore-quarter,  and  is  a  very  hardy,  active,  self- 
reliant  sheep,  and  though  favored  with  recognition  at  some 
of  the  great  shows,  is  a  provincialist,  best  suited  to  his 
bleak  native  habitat  and  never  likely  to  take  a  prominent 
place  in  British  husbandry. 

THE  SHEEP  OF  SOUTH  WALES 

are  characterized  by  Mr.  Morgan  Evans  as  "principally 
wrhite-faced,  though  some  have  rusty  brown,  others  speckled 
and  others  gray  faces.  The  males  are  horned,  the  ewes  gen- 
erally hornless,  though  sometimes  with  very  short  horns  and 
occasionally  with  horns  .equal  in  size  to  those  of  the  ram. 
The  head  is  small  and  carried  well  up,  the  neck  long,  poll 
high,  shoulders  low,  chest  narrow,  girth  small,  ribs  flat, 
rump  high  and  tail  long.  Average  weight  of  ewes  7  Ibs.  per 
quarter.  Three  year  old  wethers,  9  to  10  Ibs.  per  quarter, 
and  the  mutton  famous  for  its  delicacy.  The  average  clip 
of  wool  is  about  5  Ibs.  per  fleece  of  fine  quality,  but  in  some 
districts  it  is  mixed  with  long  hairs  about  the  neck  and 
back."  All  attempts  at  improvement  of  these  little  mountain 
sheep  have  ended  in  failure.  They  are  the  natural  product 
of  the  bleak,  semi-barren  Welsh  hills,  the  heather,  a  rigorous 
winter  climate  and  generally  hard  conditions,  modified  by 
the  salt  sea  winds,  and  in  their  best  estate,  are  likely,  though 
diminutive  in  size,  to  long:  remain  the  unapproachable, 
superlative  mutton  sheep  of  the  hill  country. 

THE  EXMOOU, 

like  the  Dartmoor,  are  native  to  the  North  Devon  and  neigh- 
boring mountains,  and  in  their  original  estate  bore  noticeable 
resemblance  to  the  Dorsets,  of  which  they  were  near  neigh- 
bors. They  were  naturally  wild  and  nomadic,  carried  light 


302  THE   DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

fleeces  of  coarse  wool,  were  homed  in  both  sexes,  and  like 
most  of  the  mountain  breeds  that  ranged  in  the  heather 
a  lid  subsisted  on  browse  and  the  scanty  herbage  of  the 
higher  moorlands  yielded  tine  flavored  mutton.  The  Ex- 
moor,  which  has  been  greatly  improved  in  the  last  half  cen- 
tury by  Leicester  crosses,  is  relatively,  a  medium  sized,  white 
faced,  white  wooled,  white  legged  and  very  hardy  sheep, 
with  prettily  turned  horns,  long  round  barrels,  broad  loins, 
short  legs,  drooping  shoulders,  rather  faulty  neck  and  mod- 
erate shoulder  girth,  and  carries  a  fleece  of  about  five  Ibs. 
of  wool.  Where  well  bred  and  fed,  the  mature  Exmoor 
dresses  from  ten  to  eighteen  Ibs.  to  the  quarter.  Tins  breed 
of  sheep,  like  the  Dorset,  matures  early  and  the  ewe  is  a 
prolific  lamb  bearer,  very  frequently  presenting  twins  and 
triplets.  The  breed  is  noteworthy,  too,  for  its  unusual 
longevity,  and  in  the  quality  of  its  mutton  has  few  equals. 

THE  LIMESTONE  OR  CRAG  SHEEP, 

which  have  found  ready  recognition  and  a  good  representa- 
tion at  the  Royal  and  other  shows,  are  mainly  confined  to  the 
rugged  moorlands  of  West  Yorkshire  and  East  Lancashire 
where  they  are  near  neighbors  of  the  Lonks.  Youatt  speaks 
of  them  in  this  wise:  "Towards  the  borders  of  Westmoreland 
the  Limestone  breed  of  sheep  are  found.  They  are  natives 
of  that  part  of  the  country  and  singularly  confined  to  il. 
It  is  a  horned  breed,  with  white  face  and  legs,  depasturing 
on  a  rocky  limestone  land."  Prof.  Wrightson  describes  them 
as  follows:  ''Both  sexes  horned,  face  and  legs  white,  wool 
firm,  intermediate  in  length,  and  inclining  to  the  character 
of  short  rather  than  long  wool.  Wethers  18  to  22  Ibs.  per 
quarter  at  twenty  months  old.  Females  very  prolific.  Out 
of  fifty-four  ewes  in  a  given  flock,  thirteen  produced  triplets, 
and  the  entire  fifty-four  brought  up  ninety-six  lambs  to 
weaning  time."  The  Crag  sheep,  he  says,  are  "well  adapted 
for  the  dry  and  high  lying  moors  of  the  mountain  limestone 
nnd  are  able  to  subsist  almost  without  water." 

THE  DEVON  LONG  WOOL. 

a  native  of  Devonshire,  comes  down  through  the  centuries 
from  the  old  Bampton,  a  large,  swarthy,  strong  boned,  heav- 
ily fleeced,  white  faced  and  hornless  breed  of  sheep,  that 
got  their  great  size  and  bone  from  the  rich  Bampton  pas- 


804  THE  DOMESTIC  SHEEP. 

lures,  ages  before  some  of  the  present  popular  breeds  of  Brit- 
ish sheep  were  born.  The  Devon  Longwool  of  to-day  is  a 
reproduction  of  the  stalwart  old  breed  under  the  refining 
influence  of  Leicester  and  Lincoln  blood,  numerous  crosses 
of  which  are  apparent  in  its  present  bodily  symmetry,  fine 
fleece  and  well  established  type.  It  has  found  favor  at  the 
Royal  and  other  leading  shows  and  is  unquestionably  a  most 
valuable  member  of  the  long-wool  tribes. 

THE  DARTMOOR 

of  the  present  time,  as  the  cut  shows,  is  a  long-wool  sheep 
of  large  size,  good  form,  long,  heavy  fleece  and  general  char- 
acter much  on  the  order  of  the  Cotswold  and  Lincoln,  and 
quite  unlike  the  raw-boned,  angular  and  ugly  native  sheep 
of  the  mountains  described  by  Youatt  and  other  early  writers. 
He  is  strong  boned,  white  faced,  white  legged  and  horn- 
less, with  long  white  staple,  is  very  hardy  and  as  now 
constituted,  the  result  of  a  cross  of  the  Leicester  and  Lin- 
coln on  the  native  Dartmoor  mountain  sheep.  The  Dartmoor 
has  been  received  with  much  favor  at  the  Royal  show  and  is 
really  one  of  the  valuable  long-wool  breeds  of  England. 

THE  GLAMORGANSHIRE  SHEEP, 

of  South  Wales,  are  small,  with  very  little  claim  to  sym- 
metry of  form  or  inviting  features.  They  are  white  faced, 
white  legged,  generally  hornless  and  carry  a  fairly  dense 
fleece  of  short  wool,  not  altogether  free  from  hair,  occasional 
tan  colored  legs  are  noted  among  them  and  are  considered 
tokens  of  constitutional  vigor.  The  mature  fat  wether 
dresses  thirty  to  forty  Ibs.,  and  the  ewe  from  twenty  to 
thirty  Ibs.,  or  about  six  or  seven  Ibs.  per  quarter.  Like 
other  tribes  of  Welsh  sheep,  they  yield  superb  mutton,  and 
so  far,  have  not  shown  marked  improvement  when  crossed 
with  larger  breeds  from  other  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

THE  CLUN  FOREST  SHEEP 

are  natives  of  the  Chin  Forest  and  Radnor  Forest  hills  on 
the  border  between  Wales  and  Shropshire,  and  were  once  a 
white  faced,  light  fleeced  sheep,  but  Shropshire  and  Ryeland 
crosses  have  improved  them  in  size,  form  and  fleece.  The 
face  colorings  ranges  from  white  to  black  with  intermediate 
shadings  of  fawn,  gray,  brown  or  mottled.  Wool  and  mutton 
of  excellent  quality,  sheep  and  lambs  mature  early,  general 
style  good,  but  fixedness  of  type  still  wanting.  A  valuable 
sheep  with  more  than  average  possibilities. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  -  THEIR  PREVENTION  AND 
TREATMENT. 

Prevention  is  better  than  cure.  The  modern  methods  and 
practice  of  medicine,  both  of  the  physician  and  the  veterinary, 
are  to  prevent  diseases  first  as  far  as  possible,  and  under  the  care- 
ful and  skillful  use  of  every  hygienic  precaution, 'this  system  has 
had  the  good,  result  of  lessening  the  death  rate  of  the  cities  to 
nearly  one-half  of  the  proportion  of  only  a  few  years  ago.  The  en- 
forced cleanliness,  the  ample  supply  of  pure  water,  the  better  ven- 
tilation of  dwellings,  the  greater  personal  cleanliness  of  individuals, 
due  to  the  copious  water  service  of  towns  and  cities,  with 
the  assistance  of  popular  education  in  this  respect,  have  all  had 
this  excellent  result.  So  far  this  better  manner  of  life  has  not 
been  adopted  in  regard  to  our  domestic  animals,  each  owner 
of  which  is  free  to  do,  or  to  neglect  to  do,  those  things  which  are 
requisite  for  the  welfare  of  his  stock.  But  this  matter  must  soon 
be  brought  under  the  same  rule  of  action  by  the  farmer,  the  shep- 
herd, the  dairyman,  the  horse  owner,  and  all  others  interested  in 
the  pursuit  of  that  branch  of  agriculture,  which  consists  of  the 
rearing  and  feeding  of  our  domestic  animals. 

Fortunately  the  general  study  of  the  hygiene  of  animal  life, 
and  the  enforcement  of  ordinary  economy,  have  had  the  result 
of  bringing  this  matter  before  the  attention  of  our  legislatures, 
and  special  hygienic  laws  have  been  made  and  enforced  througli 
which  this  saving  of  life,  and  money  as  well,  have  been  effected. 
Laws  for  the  destruction  of  contagious  diseases  both  of  animals  and 
the  common  farm  crops,  by  the  destruction  of  the  contagious  germs 
to  which  they  are  due,  are  now  beginning  to  bear  fruit;  and  those 
deadly  diseases  by  which  flocks  and  herds  have  been  decimated, 
and  uncounted  millions  of  dollars  have  been  wasted,  are  yearly 
getting  under  control  through  the  enforced  precautions  by  which 
contagion  and  infection  are  avoided.  '  The  scab  disease  of  sheep, 
for  instance,  by  virtue  of  such  laws  rigorously  enforced,  no  longer 
exists  to  the  dread  of  the  shepherd,  but  has  already  been  brought 
under  control  in  some  countries,  and  it  is  the  paramount  dutv  of 
American  shepherds  to  see  that  the  same  regulations  should  be 
made  and  enforced  here,  so  that  sheep  may  not  be  infected  in 
their  transport  by  rail  from  place  to  place,  and  the  buyer  of 
healthy  animals  may  have  either  the  assurance  of  safety,  or  satis- 
factory means  of  recompense  for  losses  sustained  through  the  neg- 
lect or  carelessness  of  those  who  are  the  causes  of  loss  in  this  way. 


306  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

There  is  no  good  reason  why  in  the  course  of  two  years  at 
least  every  contagious  and  infectious  disease  of  sheep  might  not  be 
put  an  end  to,  and  safety  for  the  future  insured.    This  would  put, 
millions  of  dollars  into  the  pockets  of  shepherds  and  sheep  breed- 
ers, and  it  is  as  easy  to  be  done  as  that  the  yellow  fever  or  the 
deadly  cholera  may  be  prevented  from  gaining  entrance  through 
our  seaports.     So  far  as  may  be  required  for  this  end,  all   con- 
cerned   in    saving   our   flocks   from    decimation   should    waste    no 
time   in   calling  for  adequate   legislation,   and  at   the   same   time 
themselves  practice  every  necessary  precaution  in  the  management 
of  their  own  flocks.    Next  to  this  all  concerned  should  study  those 
most  effective  rules  by  which  diseases,  due  to  neglects  of  manage- 
ment and  to  parasites,  may  be  avoided  by  the  general  destruction 
of   these   deadly   enemies   of   the    flocks.     One    kind  of   intestinal 
worms,  for  instance,  is  responsible  for  more  than  half  the  deaths 
of  sheep.  The  favtal  fluke  worm  has  at  times  destroyed  one-tenth  of 
all  the  sheep  in  Australia,  and  thousands  are  lost  here  simply  by  the 
neglect  to  avoid  the  use  of  infected  water  drank  Jby   the  sheep 
at  ponds  and  sluggish  streams,  bordered  by  wet  banks,  on  which 
this  parasite  is  bred  in  its  common  host,  an  abundant  snail.     So 
with  the  equally  injurious  tape  worms,  which  are  taken  into  the 
sheep  in  their  embryo  forms,  as  they  are  voided  by  dogs  and  other 
carnivorous  animals,  as  wolves  and  coyotes.    There  is  no  reason 
why  by  a  simple  method  every  dog  may  not  be  freed  from  the 
parasites,  and  rendered  innoxious  to  the  flocks. 

And  so  it  goes  with  other  diseases,  which — as  Ave  shall  describe 
them — may  be  prevented  by  the  drainage  of  low  pasture  lands,  or 
the  avoiding  of  certain  geologically  derived  soils,  the  effect  of 
which  is  injurious  to  the  flocks,  and  others  still  Avhich  are  due  to 
faults  of  feeding,  and  the  inadequate  nutrition  of  the  sheep. 
Others  too  may  be  due  to  irregularities  of  feeding,  or  to  exposure 
to  the  severity  of  the  weather,  as  to  heat  or  cold,  or  to  the  want 
of  needed  dryness  or  cleanliness  in  the  housing  of  the  flocks,  or  to 
injurious  plants  which  may  easily  be  eradicated  from  the  pas- 
tures. All  these  remarks  are  intended  to  put  the  shepherds  on 
their  guard,  and  by  full  information  as  to  these  common  risks,  lead 
to  the  avoidance  of  them  and  insure  the  safety  of  the  flocks. 

For  the  fuller  information  of  the  reader  we  shall  give  every 
name  by  which  the  common  diseases  are  known;  the  common 
ones  in 'use,  as  well  as  those  best  known  to  science;  so  that  each 
may  be  easily  recognized,  and  treated  with  understanding.  Atten- 
tion is  called  to  the  list  of  symptoms  which  indicate  the  special 
disease,  so  that  every  reader  may  as  far  as  possible  recognize  the 
ailment  by  which  his  sheep  may  be  affected,  and  thus  more  mte  h- 
gently  seek  out  the  means  of  treatment.  A  list  of  remedies  will  also 
be  found  which  may  be  used  in  accordance  with  the  prescriptions 
given  These  will  be  rated  for  animals  fully  grown,  and  are  to  be 
decreased  in  proportion  to  the  age  and  weight  of  each  one,  halt 
for  a  yearling,  and  a  fourth  for  one  six  months  old.  As  very 
young  'lambs  rarely  call  for  treatment  except  through  the  dams, 
in  such  cases  the  judgment  of  each  reader  must  be  exercised  as  to 


DISEASES  OF   SHEEP.  307 

the  proportion  of  each  case.  As  some  diseases  affect  only  young 
lambs,  it  is  to  be  understood  that  the  quantities  are  for  them 
specifically,  when  they  only  are  mentioned. 

The  list  of  diseases  are  taken  up  alphabetically,  which  will  be 
the  most  convenient  arrangement.  If  the  list  of  symptoms  is 
first  referred  to,  the  disease  indicated  will  then  be  found  in  its 
place,  with  the  needed  treatment  described. 

Before  entering  into  the  list  of  diseases  it  may  be  well  to  dis- 
cuss that  most  important  of  the  medical  management  of  the  ewes, 
which  applies  to  the  birth  of  lambs.  The  scientific  name  of  this 
natural  function  is  parturition. 

PARTURITION  OF  THE  SHEEP. 

Ordinarily  the  ewes  give  birth  to  the  lambs  in  the  Spring. 
This  is  the  most  convenient  time  of  the  year  in  general,  but  in 
some  instances,  now,  the  lambs  are  desired  much  earlier,  and  in- 
deed with  the  Dorsets,  they  are  expected  late  in  the  Fall  or  early 
in  the  Winter.  As  a  rule  it  is  most  profitable  to  have  the  lambs 
early,  that  is  from  the  New  Year  on,  until  the  early  Spring.  This 
is  a  convenient  time,  for  the  lambs  are  weaned  in  good  season  for 
the  early  fattening  of  the  ewes,  expected  to  be  sold,  and  the  lambs 
may  be  ready  for  market  two  months  earlier  than  later  ones, 
while  they  may  be  made  to  wreigh  ten  or  fifteen  pounds  more 
without  any  greater  cost  of  feeding  when  the  usual  time  of  dispos- 
ing of  them  arrives,  towards  the  end  of  the  season. 

A  weak  ewe  is  always  in  more  or  less  trouble  at  this  time 
than  those  that  have  been  duly  prepared  for  the  occasion  by 
good  care  and  feeding.  The  birth  of  a  lamb  is  always  easy  when 
the  ewes  are  strong,  and  there  is  ample  milk  for  rearing  the 
young  things,  which  are  really  hardy;  and  once  on  their  legs  and 
having  a  drink  of  milk,  are  then  about  past  all  risk  if  due  shelter 
is  given  them  in  severe  weather.  The  absence  of  this  shelter  ia 
a  very  costly  instance  of  want  of  thrift  on  the  part  of  the  shep- 
herd. A  lamb  is  a  small  thing,  but  as  he  who  takes  care  of  his 
cents  saves  his  dollars,  so  this  old  true  proverb  applies  to  this; 
and  every  lamb  lost  is  just  so  much  money  out  of  pocket. 

As  the  time  for  the  appearance  of  the  lambs  approaches, 
and  this  is  to  be  known  by  reference  to  the  record  to  be  kept 
by  every  shepherd,  the  most  forward  ewes  should  be  separated 
into  yards  with  pens  attached,  and  a  close  watch  kept  over  them. 
The  indications  of  approaching  lambing  are  the  filling  of  the  udder, 
and  later  the  deeper  color  and  swollen  condition  of  the  vulva. 
When  these  conditions  are  perceived  the  ewes  should  be  brought 
into  the  enclosures  around  the  pens,  and  watched  if  the  weather 
is  at  all  severe,  and  especially  if  it  is  raining;  for  a  cold  rain  wi'l 
kill  a  new  born  lamb  that  will  easily  withstand  a  temperature  half 
way  to  zero,  if  it  is  dry. 

Sheep  are  willful  and  obstinate,  and  unless  controlled  in  some 
way  they  cannot  help,  they  will  give  trouble.  So  that  every  pro- 
vision should  be  made  to  have  things  so  arranged  that  they  cannot 
help  but  do  precisely  what  is  wanted  of  them.  It  is  a  rare  thing 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

that  any  help  is  needed  at  the  birth  of  the  lamb,  and  quietness, 
and  the  absence  of  all  disturbances  by  other  sheep,  and  a  watchful 
attention  until  the  lamb  is  on  its  feet  and  trying  to  get  its  milk, 
are  generally  quite  sufficient.  What  the  shepherd  wants  to  know 
is  that  things  are  going  on  right,  and  then  to  let  the  sheep  and 
the  lamb  get  on  in  their  own  way. 

If  a  lamb  is  chilled,  a  hot  bath  is  the  best  thing  for  it,  and 
then  to  be  wrapped  in  a  flannel  around  its  body.  A  teaspoonful  of 
hot  gin  and  water,  a  little  sweetened,  is  the  common  panacea  of 
the  Highland  shepherds  for  the  restoration  of  a  weak  or  chilled 
lamb;  and  it  is  certainly  effective.  Even  on  those  exposed  moun- 
tain pastures,  it  is  rare  that  the  losses  of  lambs  reach  over  seven 
per  cent,  even  in  the  worst  of  seasons,  and  when  the  shep- 
herd's hut  is  almost  buried  in  snow. 

If  a  ewe  refuses  to  care  for  her  lamb,  she  should  be  put  into  a 
small  pen,  in  which  she  cannot  get  away  from  the  lamb's  impor- 
tunities, and  generally  it  will  be  sufficient  to  hold  the  lamb  to  the 
teat  and  let  it  get  a  few  mouthfuls  of  milk,  after  which  it  will 
take  care  of  itself,  and  the  ewe  will  submit  to  its  importunate  calls 
for  nutriment.  This  care  is  more  needed  when  twin  lambs  art- 
dropped,  and  by  due  attention  the  majority  of  these  will  be  suc- 
cessfully reared  in  this  way  without  artificial  feeding.  Otherwise 
it  will  be  wise  to  have  a  fresh  cow  handy,  and  feed  the  lambs  that 
need  it  from  a  nursing  bottle.  It  has  been  known  that  more 
thian  three  hundred  pairs  of  twins  have  been  reared  in  a  flock 
of  six  hundred  ewes,  through  the  good  care  and  management  of  a 
skillful  foreman  who  looked  attentively  to  this  part  of  his 
business. 

If  a  ewe  is  weak,  there  is  nothing  better  for  her  than  a 
drink  of  warm  oatmeal  gruel  given  from  a  long-necked  bottle,  if 
she  will  not  drink  it  without  this  help.  This  may  be  given  four 
times  a  day,  and  in  a  large  flock  a  supply  of  this  nourishing  food 
should  be  kept  on  hand  and  warm  all  the  time.  It  will  be  a 
great  help  to  have  the  weak  ewes  culled  out  before  the  lambing 
time  is  due,  and  by  a  little  extra  care  to  get  up  their  strength  by 
good  nursing. 

One  of  the  worst  things  that  may  happen  to  a  ewe,  heavy  in 
lamb,  is  to  be  chased  by  dogs.  This  is  to  be  carefully  prevented, 
and  the  shepherd's  dog  itself  is  to  be  watched  at  this  time  lest  he 
might  be  too  rough  with  some  forward  ewe. 

Unnecessary  interference  with  a  ewe  in  labor  is  unwise.  Let 
nature  have  its  way  until  it  is  evident  that  help  is  needed,  and 
then  the  careful  use  of  the  forceps,  or  a  small  hand,  may  liberate 
the  lamb  and  afford  a  safe  delivery.  If  the  ewe  is  weak  and 
prostrated,  a  dose  of  the  ordinary  cordial  used  by  shepherds  will 
act  as  a  useful  stimulant,  after  which  some  light  liquid  nutritious 
food  will  restore  the  strength. 

There  are  occasions  of  such  a  presentation  of  the  lamb  that  it 
is  impossible  to  save  it,  and  it  may  be  a  question  whether  the 
lamb  or  the  ewe  may  be  the  most  desirable  to  sacrifice.  If  the 
lamb  is  likely  to  be  of  more  value  than  the  ewe,  it  may  be  saved 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  309 

by  taking  it  from  the  mother  by  what  is  known  as  the  Cesarian 
operation.  This  consists  of  the  opening  of  the  ewe  and  taking 
the  lamb  from  her.  This  is  a  serious  operation,  but  it  has  been 
performed  safely,  and  both  ewe  and  lamb  saved.  Or  if  the  ewe 
must  be  sacrificed,  and  is  in  a  hopeless  condition  of  exhaustion, 
she  may  be  treated  with  chloroform  so  as  to  make  her  insensible, 
and  the  lamb  then  extracted  and  reared  by  hand,  or  put  on  an- 
other ewe. 

This  operation  is  performed  in  this  way.  The  wool  is  clipped 
from  the  right  flank,  and  an  incision  is  made  large  enough  to  insert 
the  hand  previously  oiled  or  greased  with  carbolated  vaseline.  Five 
inches  is  about  right.  The  uterus  (the  womb)  is  then  brought 
into  view,  taking  the  utmost  care  to  keep  the  intestines  out  of 
danger,  for  it  is  quite  possible  to  save  both  ewe  and  lamb  by 
skillful  operation.  The  uterus  is  then  opened,  the  membranes 
removed  and  opened,  and  the  lamb  taken,  cutting  the  cord  and 
tying  it  to  prevent  bleeding.  The  incisions  are  then  closed  by 
sutures,  using  every  precaution  to  sterilize  the  parts  by  a  spray 
of  warm  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  permanganate  of  potash.  The 
lamb  is  fed  with  fresh  cow's  milk,  or  put  to  a  newly-lambed  ewe. 
The  ewe  is  kept  quiet  and  comfortable,  and  if  the  operation 
has  not  been  delayed  too  long,  it  has  an  equal  chance  for  recovery. 
Reports  of  thirty-four  cases  of  this  kind  have  been  recorded,  in 
which  fourteen  were  successful,  both  ewe  and  lamb  having  been 
saved;  in  nine  the  ewe  was  saved,  but  the  results  as  to  the  lamb 
are  not  given.  The  ewe  alone  was  saved  in  five  instances,  in  six 
the  ewe  died  but  the  lambs  were  saved,  and  in  only  six  both  ewe 
and  lamb  died.  St.  Cyr,  a  noted  veterinarian,  says  in  his  work, 
that  this  operation  is  decidedly  dangerous  for  the  parent,  but 
may  be  made  with  success  as  to  the  lamb;  but  the  mother  may 
often  be  saved,  if  the  due  antiseptic  precautions  are  taken  and 
the  body  is  carefully  bandaged  to  support  the  wounded  parts. 
If  the  mother's  life  is  not  the  main  object,  by  taking  a  sufficiently 
early  time  for  the  operation,  the  lamb  may  be  saved  in  a  large 
majority  of  cases. 

The  incision  in  the  flank  need  not  be  more  than  five  inches 
in  length,  and  the  intestines  are  ±o  be  carefully  protected,  and 
sprayed  by  the  antiseptic  preparation.  The  most  effective  stimu- 
lant for  the  ewe  is  a  decoction  of  gentian,  of  which  half  a  pint  may 
be  given  after  the  operation  is  completed.  As  to  other  animals, 
especially  cows,  this  operation  has  been  generally  successful. 

RETENTION  OF  THE  AFTER-BIRTH. 

This  is  not  at  all  common  in  the  sheep  as  it  is  with,  the 
larger  animals.  The  cause  of  this  accident  is  weakness  in  the 
ewe,  or  the  spasmodic  action  of  the  os-uteri,  or  passage  from 
the  uterus.  The  former  is  treated  by  giving  stimulants  to  the 
ewe,  such  as  infusion  of  laurel  berries,  with  aniseed,  infused 
in  warm  water  as  follows: 

Laurel  berries 2  ounces. 

Aniseed 1       " 

Carbonate  of  soda  ..  ...2       " 


310  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

Infuse  in  two  quarts  of  water  and  give  half  a  pint,  repeated 
in  six  hours.  This  has  been  found  almost  universally  successful, 
except  where  the  latter  cause  has  been  in  operation.  In  this 
case  the  application  of  belladonna  ointment  to  the  neck  of  the 
womb,  and  to  give  half  a  dram  of  the  belladonna  extract  to  the 
ewe  in  some  warm  gruel,  have  been  found  effective.  In  gen- 
eral this  is  not  any  serious  matter,  as  in  time  the  membranes  will 
gradually  pass  away  without  any  but  a  temporary  inconvenience. 
This  inconvenience  is  generally  avoided  by  due  care  in  the  feed- 
ing of  the  ewes  while  carrying  their  lambs.  A  strong  ewe  will 
rarely  be  troubled  in  this  way. 

BLEEDING  FROM  THE  WOMB. 

Bleeding  or  flooding,  after  the  birth  of  the  lamb,  is  mostly 
due  to  the  rupture  of  some  blood  vessel  in  the  separation  of 
the  membrane  from  the  walls  of  the  womb.  The  treatment 
called  for  in  this  case  is  the  injection  of  cold  water,  by  means 
of  a  suitable  syringe,  into  the  womb,  and  a  sponge  dipped  in  solu- 
tion of  perchloride  of  iron  should  be  placed  in  the  vagina.  At  the 
same  time  half-dram  doses  of  the  perchloride  should  be  given  by 
the  mouth,  in  solution,  at  intervals  of  three  hours.  It  will  be  a 
help  to  rub  other  parts  of  the  body,  as  the  legs  and  neck,  with  any 
of  the  common  stimulating  liniments  to  produce  a  revulsion  of  the 
circulation  to  these  parts  of  the  body,  thus  relieving  the  seat  of 
the  disorder.  This  is  an  infrequent  trouble  with  sheep,  and  is 
due  mostly  to  some  undue  muscular  exertion  of  the  animal  during 
the  birth  of  the  lamb. 

INVERSION  OF  THE  WOMB. 

Sometimes  after  the  birth  of  the  lamb  the  womb,  a  red  bladder- 
like  substance,  may  be  seen  ejecting  from  the  vulva.  This  is 
due  to  some  weakness  of  the  ewe  by  which  the  attachments  of  the 
womb  are  loosened,  and  through  the  failure  of  the  passage  to 
close,  normally,  the  accident  occurs.  This  disease  has  been  known 
and  described  from  time  immemorial.  It  was  mentioned  by  the 
old  Roman  veterinarian,  Vegetius,  who  quite  wisely — we  think — 
recommended  the  use  of  an  inflated  pig's  bladder  as  a  passary, 
or  compress,  to  be  placed  in  the  vagina.  The  bladder  is  inserted 
while  collapsed,  and  is  then  inflated  by  blowing  into  it  with  a 
quill,  when  the  neck  is  tied.  This  accident  is  quite  frequent  in  the 
ewe,  coming  next  to  the  cow  in  regard  to  it.  It  is  most  apt  to 
happen  through  the  retention  of  the  after-birth,  when  the  whole 
organ  is  averted  with  its  contents.  If  this  is  the  case  these  must 
be  carefully  separated  at  each  attachment  of  the  cotyledons,  so  as 
not  to  cause  bleeding  by  forcible  separation.  If  the  union  is  not 
easily  separated  the  membranes  may  be  severed  near  the  attach- 
ments, but  with  great  care  to  avoid  bleeding.  The  uterus  is  then 
washed  with  warm  water,  having  a  little  alum,  or  extract  of  bark 
in  it.  It  is  then  carefully  replaced  using  a  probe  having  a  soft 
sponge  ti-ed  to  the  end,  and  covered  with  a  clean  linen  rag.  This 
is  dipped  in  carbolated  vaseline,  and  by  it  the  uterus  is  gently 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  311 

replaced.  The  small  bladder  is  then  used  as  above  mentioned. 
The  ewe  should  have  immediately  a  strong  dose  of  whisky  or  gin, 
to  allay  muscular  or  nervous  excitement.  A  small  quantity  of 
diluted  tincture  of  opium  may  be  injected  into  the  uterus,  at  the 
same  time.  Necessarily  the  ewe  should  be  kept  very  quiet  for  a 
time,  and  not  be  permitted  to  run  with  the  flock  until  recovery  is 
made. 

If  repeated  eversion  is  threatened  after  this,  the  application 
of  a  padded  bandage  with  an  opening  in  the  center,  or  a  patch  of  soft 
leather  should  be  fastened  on.  the  part  by  a  suitable  bandage, 
placed  up  over  the  back  on  each  side  of  the  tail,  and  under  the 
belly,  and  fastened  to  a  strap  around  the  body. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  VAGINA. 

This  is  sometimes  a  sequel  of  a  difficult  birth,  especially  after 
the  use  of  any  of  the  preceding  operations.  The  lips  of  the  part 
are  swollen,  and  of  a  dark  color,  and  subject  to  irritation  which 
causes  the  ewe  to  rub,  and  at  times  to  lacerate,  the  part.  The 
treatment  should  be  simple  washing  of  the  part  with  warm  water 
and  carbolic  soap,  injecting  as  well  two  ounces  of  warm  water  in 
which  half  a  dram  of  hyposulphite  of  soda  is  dissolved.  Circum- 
stances, such  as  the  spread  of  this  disease,  among  other  ewes, 
have  led  to  the  belief  that  this  disorder  is  contagious.  It  is  cer- 
tainly so  to  the  ram  at  the  serving  season,  and  lest  it  might  be- 
come chronic,  it  should  be  treated  without  delay.  The  treatment, 
when  the  disease  is  persistent,  is  to  wash  and  inject  the  part  with 
the  hyposulphite  solution,  and  to  give  half  a  dram  of  the  sulphite 
dissolved  in  water,  daily  for  a  week,  by  the  mouth. 

GARGET  OR  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  UDDER. 

This  disease  is  rare  with  the  ewe,  except  when  she  is  deprived 
of  her  lamb  too  suddenly  at  the  weaning  time.  It  rarely  occurs  at 
the  birth  of  the  lamb,  but  yet  may  do  so  by  reason  of  exposure 
to  cold,  especially  wet  cold,  as  of  heavy  Spring  rains,  soon  after, 
or  at  the  birth  of  the  lamb.  It  soon  yields  to  emollient  treat- 
ment, such  as  bathing  with  warm — almost  hot — water  with  a  little 
alcohol  in  it.  After  bathing,  the  udder  is  rubbed  gently  by  the 
hand,  and  vaseline  applied.  Two  drams  of  Epsom  salts  may  be 
given,  and  the  feed  should  be  only  hay  or  grass.  This  disorder  is 
apt  to  happen  if  the  ewes  are  fed  too  liberally  soon  after  lambing, 
with  such  exciting  food  as  the  oil  cakes.  A  warm  mash  of  oatmeal 
with  one-fourth  as  much  linseed  meal  may  be  given  twice  a  day. 
If  the  milk  is  thick,  inject  a  small  quantity  of  solution  of  common 
baking  soda,  or  saleratus,  into  the  udder,  and  after  a  few  minutes 
milk  it  out. 

ABORTION. 

When  a  pregnant  animal  expels  the  fetus  before  it  has  become 
sufficiently  developed  to  live  outside  and  separated  from  the 
parent,  abortion  (partus  immaturus,  or  immature  birth)  is  said  to 
occur.  When  the  birth  occurs  before  the  due  period,  but  with  its 


312  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

organs  sufficiently  matured  for  the  perfect  operation  of  the  vital 
functions,  it  is  partus  prematurus,  or  premature  birth.  The 
former  occurrence  is  a  disease,  the  latter  simply  an  accidental 
shortening  of  the  normal  period  of  the  inter-uterial  growth  and 
existence  of  the  fetus.  In  practice  these  two  conditions  differ  only 
in  the  result.  Abortion  is  the  birth  of  an  immature  fetus  which  is 
dead,  or  too  weak  and  ill-formed  to  live.  A  premature  birth  re- 
sults in  a  weak  animal  which  may  live  and  thrive  or  succumb 
and  peris1!],  in  a  short  time.  It  is  frequently  the  case  that  an 
animal  prematurely  born  may  by  good  management  survive  and 
become  as  profitable  as  one  that  has  passed  its  full  time. 

The  sheep,  and  the  goat — a  closely-related  species — are  most 
liable  to  this  accident  of  all  the  smaller  domestic  animals;  but 
not  nearly  so  as  the  cow.  The  cow  averages  20  per  cent  of  abor- 
tions, the  sheep,  among  nearly  6,000  recorded  births,  suffered 
26  abortions  or  about  4  per  cent  only. 

Abortion  occurs  in  the  sheep  and  goat  generally  twenty  days 
or  more  before  the  due  period,  or  the  140th  day  after  fecundation. 
The  nearer  this  limit  the  more  serious  the  risk  of  the  dam  is. 

Abortion  is  sporadic,  that  is,  occurs  here  or  there  over  a  wide 
extent;  or  it  is  epizootic,  and  occurs  numerously  in  any  special 
and  distinct  locality. 

The  former  occurrence  may  be  due  to  an  unfavorable  season 
in  which  the  ewes  suffer  unusual  hardships,  mostly  deficiency  of 
food  or  sudden  unfavorable  conditions  of  the  weather.  Dry  cold 
is  not  so  mischievous  as  wet,  cold  weather;  and  frosty  nights  fol- 
lowing warm  days,  or  perhaps  more  accurately  the  reverse,  is  the 
most  frequent  of  all  accidents.  Pasturing  on  the  frosty  herbage 
in  such  a  condition  of  weather  so  chills  the  womb  by  contact 
with  the  cold  stomach,  as  to  produce  this  disorder  more  frequently 
than  any  other  cause.  As  prevention  is  the  only  remedy  for  this 
disease,  it  is  the  business  of  the  shepherd  to  exercise  caution  in 
this  regard.  Another  frequent  cause  of  abortion  is  overloading  the 
stomach  with  coarse,  innutritions,  indigestible  fodder;  in  fact 
the  stomach  is  so  closely  connected  with  the  uterus,  that  a  sym- 
pathy between  these  two  organs  exists  which  is  to  be  well  consid- 
ered by  the  shepherd,  and  the  feeding  is  to  be  so  managed  that 
.indigestion,  and  especially  bloating  of  the  stomach,  is  to  be 
avoided.  It  also  goes  without  saying  that  the  food  of  a  pregnant 
ewe  is  to*  be  sufficiently  nutritious  and  well  balanced  to  supply  all 
the  needs  of  the  ewe  and  the  fetus  within  her. 

Certain  foods,  too,  are  to  be  avoided.  These  are  the  coarse 
sedges  and  weeds  growing  on  low  lands;  the  aromatic  ragweed 
and"  allied  plants  which  contain  a  similar  essential  oil  to  which 
the  strong  odor  is  due;  the  leaves  of  turnips  in  a  frozen  condition, 
and  the  leaves  of  the  beet  in  any  condition  are  all  liable  to  cause 
abortion,  or  so  alleged  by  several  noteworthy  authorities. 

Dogs  ars  the  most  serious  cause  of  this  disease  by  chasing 
or  injuring  the  ewes  during  the  latter  part  of  the  pregnancy. 
Fright,  probably  by  its  injurious  action  on  the  nervous  system, 
as  well  a.s  the  violent  physical  exertion,  conspire  to  produce  this 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  318 

result.  All  these  instances  go  to  suggest  such  precautions  as  will 
insure  immunity  from  this  form  of  the  disease. 

One  special  instance  should  not  be  omitted,  which  is  the  effect 
of  some  natural  influence  or  defect  of  the  ram.  For  instance, 
over  use,  having  too  many  ewes  to  serve;  too  early  an  age  and 
consequent  inability;  and  a  defective  constitution;  all  go  to 
produce  essential  weakness  of  the  fetus;  which,  as  it  approaches 
the  end  of  the  fetal  period,  has  not  sufficient  strength  to  mature, 
and  thus  dies  and  is  ejected. 

There  are  no  premonitory  symptoms  in  this  form  of  the 
disease.  Abortion  may  occur  suddenly  and  usually  does,  so  that 
the  fetus  is  lost  without  the  knowledge  of  the  shepherd.  It  hap- 
pens mostly  in  the  night,  and  the  appearance  of  the  aborted  fetus 
in  the  pasture  or  the  pens,  is  the  only  indication  to  the  shepherd 
that  some  ewe  has  gone  wrong,  but  which  he  will  probably  never 
discover.  The  results  on  the  ewe  are  rarely  noticeable  and  of 
course  any  treatment  Avhatever  is  out  of  the  question,  unless  the 
ewe  may  be  found  suffering  from  bleeding  or  prostration  through 
sympathetic  action  of  the  nervous  system.  In  this  case  a  dose  of 
two  drams  of  laudanum  may  be  given  with  good  results. 

Epizootic  abortion  is  due  to  contagion.  It  may  appear  suddenly 
in  one  flock  and  in  a  short  time  be  active  in  many  others  at  the 
same  time  throughout  an  extensive  locality.  In  this  'form  the 
disease  is  always  due  to  the  presence  of  a  certain  g.erm  allied  to 
the  common  molds — Pencillium  glaucum — the  common  green  mold 
or  mildew,  possibly  originating  in  the  field.  This  germ  spreads 
from  the  ejected  matter  of  one  animal  to  the  related  parts  of 
others,  and  thus  disease  spreads  rapidly  through  a  flock  and  from 
one  to  another  in  various  ways.  The  treatment  is  to  carefully 
disinfect  the  ewes  by  injecting  one  or  two  ounces  solution  of  car- 
bolic acid,  twenty  drops  of  the  acid  to  the  ounce  of  water,  twice 
in  the  day.  Two  ounces  of  infusion  of  black  hair  (viturnum 
prompolium)  in  hot  water,  may  be  given  when  cooled  down  to  the 
ewes  which  gives  indications  of  aborting,  or  to  all  of  them  in  the 
flock  as  a  safe  precaution. 

As  a  preventive,  the  condition  of  the  ewes  is  to  be  maintained 
during  pregnancy  by  good  food,  carefully  avoiding  ergotted  grain 
or  hay,  or  smutty  corn  or  oats,  together  with  straw  or  fodder 
from  crops  that  have  been  infected  by  smut.  Pure  water,  free 
from  all  marshy  drainage,  only  should  be  given  to  the  flock. 

COMMON   DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 
ANEMIA— PAPER  SKIN  -THROAT  THREAD  WORMS. 

This  disease  affects  lambs  mostly,  and  is  recognized  by  the 
white  and  bloodless  appearance  of  the  skin;  the  general  weakness 
of  the  young  animals,  and  cough  which  has  a  rattling  sound,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  weakened  lambs  are  able  to  breathe  only 
with  difficulty.  The  disease  is  due  to  the  presence  in  the  throat, 
and  air  passages  of  the  lungs,  of  a  small  white  worm,  slender  and 


314 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


FIG.  1.— Lung  Worm. 


almost  invisible  in  the  mass  of  frothy  mucus  in  which  they  are 
gathered  in  clusters.    This  worm  is  known  as  Strongylus  Filaria. 

The  disease  is  immediately  rec- 
ognized by  severe  cougliing  fits  of 
the  infested  animals,  mostly  lambs 
under  a  year  old.  The  difficulty  in 
breathing  necessarily  prevents  the 
due  aeration  and  purification  of  the 
blood  as  it  passes  through  the  capil- 
laries of  the  lungs,  to  be  refreshed 
by  the  pure  air  breathed.  The  red 
corpuscles  of  the  blood  are  greatly 
decreased  in  number,  and  as  these 
are  necessary  to  the  full  develop- 
ment of  the  body  the  affected  lamb 
languishes,  becomes  weak,  the  blood 
is  reduced  to  a  yellow  serum  with- 
out vitality,  arid  all  the  visib'e 
membranes  are  pale,  and  the  skin 
has  the  appearance  of  paper.  Hence 
the  common  name  of  this  disease. 
The  treatment  depends  on  the  destruction  of  the  parasite. 
This  is  most  easily  affected  by  the  use  of  turpentine,  continued  un- 
til the  system  is  saturated  with  it  and  the  fumes  escape  through  the 
lungs  and  throat.  Here  the  volatile  oil  comes  in  contact  with  the 
parasite  and  kills  it,  thus  relieving  the  suffering  animal  most  ef- 
fectively. As  soon  as  relief  is  afforded  in  this  way,  the  most  easily 
digested  and  nutritious  food,  as  linseed  meal,  with  oatmeal  and 
bran,  is  to  be  given  daily,  in  moderate  quantities  to  insure  full  di- 
gestion. The  turpentine  is  most  easily  given  in  sweet  miik,  the  two 
shaken  together  to  form  an  emulsion.  The  quantity  is  one  tea- 
spoonful  given  in  the  morning  before  eating,  and  repeated  daily 
for  a  week. 

These  worms  are  believed  to  gain  access  to  the  lambs  with 
the  grass  of  the  pastures,  and  it  is  believed — doubt'ess  with  amr^e 
reason — that,  as  the  old  sheep  are  equally  affected  by  this  parasi;e, 
this  is  ejected  by  them  either  by  coughing  or  through  the  bowels, 
and  failing  on  the  grass  they,  or  the  eggs  of  them,  are  taken  up 
by  the  lambs  feeding  with  the  ewes.  To  avoid  this  infection, 
lambs  should  never  be  permitted  to  pasture  with  the  ewes,  and 
the  meadows  should  be  liberally  dressed  with  fresh  air  slaked 
lime  ever^7  Spring  or  Fall. 

As  a  help  to  restore  the  condition  of  the  lambs  give  each  one 
a  half  teaspoonful  of  a  mixture  of  gentian,  ginger  and  sulphate  of 
iron,  a  most  useful  tonic  mixture,  which  will  hereafter  in  this 
chapter  be  termed  the  tonic  mixture.  These  ingredients  are  finely 
powdered  and  mixed,  and  one  teaspoonful  is  a  dose  for  a  full- 
grown  sheep.  It  is  easily  given  in  some  ground  feed  or  with  mo- 
lasses spread  on  the  back  of  the  tongue. 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  315 

TAPE  WORMS. 

This  class  ot  animal  parasites  are  all  of  the  greatest  interest 
to  the  scientific  student  on  Account  of  the  peculiarity  of  their 
habits.  They  doubtless  cause  more  ailments  of  all  kinds,  some 
quite  unsuspected  as  the  results  of  the  special  cause,  than  any  other 
similar  cause  of  diseases.  The  sheep  is  unusually  exposed  to  this 
class  of  parasites  and  on  account  of  the  curious  life  history  of 
them  while  passing  through  the  sheep  the  sheep  suffer  more  from 
them  than  from  any  other  cause  of  disease. 

TENIA  MARGIN  ATA. 

Tenia  marginata  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  most  common 
of  these  parasites.  This  name,  derived  from  the  Latin,  means  in 
plain  English,  the  margined  or  bordered  ribbon  worm.  This  indi- 
cates the  figure  of  the  mature  worm,  which  as  seen  in  the  illus- 
tration, is  a  long  slender  ribbon-formed  thing,  with  a  corrugated 
border  or  margin.  It  reaches  a  length  when  mature  of  no  less 
than  eight  feet  and  a  width  of  nearly  half  an  inch.  In  this  form 
it  inhabits  the  intestines  of  the  dog.  Thus  at  the  start  we  find 
that  the  dog  or  some  other  animal  related  to  it,  is  necessary  +o 
the  perfection  of  the  life  history  of  this  creature.  The  illustra- 
tion given  shows  the  general  figure  of  this  worm  in  its  adult  stage. 
The  slender  part,  (a)  is  the  head,  shown  enlarged  at  (b,  b,)  the 
body  increasing  in  size  and  in  length  of  section  or  segments  to 
the  end  (d,  d,)  from  which  the  segments  are  shed  as  they  mature 
(c,  c  and  d,)  filled  with  eggs.  These  segments  are  voided  by  the  dog 
or  other  bearer  and  if  on  the  grass  of  a  pasture,  or  near  water,  it 
is  a  foregone  conclusion  that  the  sheep  must  some  time  or  other, 
in  the  list  of  chances,  pick  up  some  of  these  eggs,  when  the  infec- 
tion begins. 

In  the  sheep,  the  egg  soon  transforms  into  a  young  worm 
which  is  enclosed  in  a  cyst  or  bladder,  the  end  of  the  neck  of 
which  is  the  head  of  the  worm.  The  cysts  mostly  inhabit  the 
liver  of  the  sheep,  but  have  been  found  in  the  heart,  lungs,  and 
muscles.  To  reach  these  resting  places  the  minute  eggs  or  em- 
bryos must  penetrate  the  wall  of  the  sheep's  stomach,  and  enter 
the  minute  capillary  veins  from  which  they  easily  pass  through 
the  larger  veins  into  the  liver  or  other  resting  places,  where  they 
remain  until  they  either  kill  the  host,  or  die  for  want  of  the 
means  of  development.  In  the  former  case  the  sheep  perishes  of 
the  disease  set  up  in  the  liver  by  the  irritating  presence  of  the 
parasite,  or  the  disease  may  exist  in  the  abdomen  in  the  form  of 
peritonitis.  When  the  dead  sheep  is  in  the  course  of  nature  made 
a  prey  to  the  dog,  the  wolf  or  the  coyote,  the  cysts  containing  the 
eggs  are  swalloAved,  and  at  once  begin  their  final  development 
into  the  mature  worm. 

It  is  readily  seen  that  this  disease  due  to  this  parasite  must 
be  deadly  to  the  sheep,  which  is  the  common  result;  or  the  para- 
site is  no  longer  troublesome  except  so  far  as  regards  the  perma- 
nent encystment  of  the  living  or  dead  embryo  in  the  muscles, 


0 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 


317 


or  whatever  internal  organ  the  cyst  may  have  lodged  in.  If  this 
occurs  the  remains  of  the  parasite  will  be  marked  by  a  limy  deposit 
at  the  spot  where  it  perished.  But  there  exists  this  danger.  If 
the  embryos  become  encysted  in  the  muscles  of  any  animal  whose 
flesh  is  used  as  food,  and  the  embryos  are  still  living,  those  per- 
sons who  may  eat  the  meat  of  such  animals,  and  which  has  not 
been  sufficiently  cooked,  will  become  infected;  as  is  so  frequently 
the  case  among  persons  who  consume  their  food  half  cooked, 
or  not  cooked  at  all.  This  does  actually  occur  to  an  enormous 
extent  among  half  civilized  peoples.  Dry  mutton  hams  may  thus 
infect  persons  who  eat  them.  In  this  cystic  form  the  parasite  is 
known  as  Cysticercus  terini-collis,  or  the  slender-necked,  round 
cysted  worm. 

If  the  worm  is  to  be  attacked  at  all  it  should  be  in  the  dog. 
This  is  an  easy  method,  for  by  administering  the  proper  antidote 
at  regular  intervals  of  two  months,  the  worms  may  be  destroyed 
and  the  sheep  delivered  from  the  danger  so  far.  As  another  tape 
worm  of  the  sheep  inhabits  the  dog  and  its  term  is  nearly  a  month, 
the  safe  way  would  be  to  give  the  medicine  every  twenty  days, 
thus  covering  the  intervals  of  each  of  these  parasites.  Areca 
nut  is  the  most  effective  remedy  for  this  use.  The  freshly  ground 
powder,  in  quantity  equal  to  two  grains  for  each  pound  of  live 
weight  of  the  dog,  may  be  given  with  butter  or  in  any  other 
convenient  and  simple  way.  The  dog  should  go  unfed  from  noon 
the  previous  day  and  until  a  few  hours  after  the  medicine  is 
given.  Two  hours  after  giving  the  medicine,  give  one  ounce  of 
caster  oil.  Keep  the  dog  tied  up  until  the  medicine  has  operated, 
and  the  dead  worms  have  been  passed.  Any  other  effective  sub- 
stitute may  be  used  if  the  desired  effect  is  gained. 

TENIA  COENURUS.— GID  OR  STAGGERS   IN  SHEEP. 

This  species  of  tape  worm  is  the  cause  of  that  well  known  • 
and  frequent  disease  of  sheep  called  Gid,  Turnsick  or  Staggers. 


FIG.  3.— Adult,  Natural  Size. 

It  is  so  named  because  the  animal  under  the  influence  of  the 
disease  becomes  giddy  and  is  compelled  by  a  well  known  function 
of  the  brain,  to  turn  to  this  or  the  other  side,  as  it  moves,impelled 
thereto  by  the  influence  of  the  pressure  on  either  half  of  the  brain 
as  the  case  may  be.  It  is  well  known  that  each  half  of  the  brain 
exercises  its  function  on  that  special  side  of  the  animal,  and  thus 
the  pressure  of  the  watery  bladders,  in  which  the  embryos  of  this 


318 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


worm  are  contained,  on  the  substance  of  the  brain,  causes  this 
special  result.  The  sheep  turns  round  and  round  in  small  circles, 
staggers,  trembles,  stops  eating  and  drinking,  is  convulsed  and 
finally  dies  of  paralysis  or  exhaustion.  If  the  head  is  examined 

there  will  be  found  these  cysts, 
drawings  of  which  are  taken  from 
Cobbold's  Treatise  on  Internal 
Parasites.  These  may  contain 
many  of  the  immature  worms, 
scores  or  hundreds,  attached  to 
the  inner  surface  of  the  bladder. 
It  is  the  pressure  of  these  watery 
bladders,  on  the  substance  of  the 
brain,  by  which  the  abnormal 
movements  of  the  sheep  are  caused. 
Sheep  become  infected 
through  the  pasture  on  which 
they  feed,  and  on  which  the  eggs 
"of  the  worm  inlay  have  been 
dropped  by  dogs  in  their  dung,  or 
Fig.  4. TUpper  Surface  of  the  Brain,  from  water  in  which  the  eggs  may 
showing  at  (a)  the  Coenui us  cere  ,  ,  . .  ,  . 

bralis  cyst.  have  been  washed  or  deposited  in 

any  of  the  many  ways  possible. 

These  egge  are  taken  of  course  into  the  sheep's  stomach,  and 
there  hatching,  they  make  their  way  by  migration  into  several 
parts  of  the  body,  the  eggs  doubtless  gaining  access  to  the  veins 
are  thus  distributed,  but  perish  wherever  deposited,  except  in  the 
brain.  Once  there,  the  worms  begin  a  migratory  expedition  in 
search  of  a  resting  place,  making  galleries  through  the  brain 
substance,  until  they  grow  too  large,  when  they  form  a  large 
cyst  or  bladder  in  which  they  remain  as  above  mentioned.  In. 
time,  the  sheep  so  infested  dies,  or  is  slaughtered,  when  the  head, 
thrown  to  the  dogs,  is  eaten  and  these  embryos  ar  swallowed. 
The  history  of  the  worms  described  in  the  preceding  pages  is 
then  repeated,  and  the  segment  or  eggs  of  them  mature  in  the  in- 
testines of  the  dog  until  they  are  discharged  and  are  taken  once 
more  into  the  sheep. 

In  this  larval  stage  the  worm  is  known  as  Coenurus  cere- 
bralie.  After  its  first  introduction  into  the  brain  of  its  host,  it 
is  about  as  large  as  a  mustard  seed,  and  the  disease  becomes 
manifest  in  five  or  six  weeks  after  its  introduction.  It  then 
grows  for  some  months,  during  which  its  effects  are  constantly 
increasing  in  virulence  until  the  final  symptoms  appear  and  the 
death  of  the  sheep  follows. 

The  first  symptoms  of  the  disease  noticed  are  dullness,  feeble- 
ness, "heat  in  the  head,  redness  of  the  eyes,  and  hastened  circula- 
tion. The  head  suffers  visibly,  being  stretched  out,  turned  back, 
or  carried  drooping.  Then  follow  spasmodic  convulsions  or  par- 
alysis. During  these  manifestations  of  pain  and  distress,  the 
sheep  makes  those  typical  movements,  turning  in  circles  towards 
the  side  of  the  head  affected  most,  or  if  the  parasite  is  in  the  cen- 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  319 

ter  of  the  brain,  going  forwards,  pressing  the  head  against  a  wail 
or  gate  or  fence,  and  standing  stupidly.  Death  may  then  occur 
in  a  few  days  or  the  sheep  may  appear  to  recover  for  a  few 
months  when  a  different  attack  will  occur.  Two  per  cent  is  the 
average  of  recoveries  from  these  attacks.  It  has  happened  that 
this  worm  selects,  or  is  forced  so  to  do,  the  spinal  cord  for  its 
resting  place.  Then  the  sheep  walk  with  a  staggering  gait,  and  in- 
flammation along  the  spine  with  all  the  symptoms  of  myelitis 
occurs.  There  is  little  hope  for  cure  by  any  of  the  alleged  opera- 
tions that  have  been  reported,  such  as  piercing  the  skuil  with  a 
sharp-pointed  syringe,  and  drawing  off  the  serum  from  the  blad-" 
ders,  when  the  worms  will  die,  and  the  offending  matter  will 
be  absorbed  without  serious  results.  These  alleged  successful 
operations  are  doubtless  the  vain  stories  of  shepherds,  who  were 
not  sure  of  the  disease  ever  existing.  The  skull  may  be 
punctured  and  the  brain  operated  on,  and  water  may  exist  in  the 
cavity  of  the  skull  with  some  such  manifestations  as  in  this 
peculiar  disease.  And  this  is  doubtless  the  explanation  of  these 
alleged  cures  of  this  complaint. 

The  only  cure  is  prevention  by  ridding  the  dogs  of  the  tape 
worms,  by  slaughtering  the  affected  sheep  at  the  early  stage  of 
the  disease,  and  carefully  destroying  the  head  and  its  contents. 
A  sheep  in  good  condition  may  be  used  for  food  without  risk 
when  thus  disposed  of. 

TAENIA  ECHINOCOCCUS  HYDATIDS. 

This  worm  is  known  as  the  many  headed  tape  worm.  As  it 
is  not  existing  in  this  part  of  the  world,  it  is  merely  mentioned  so 
far  as  -to  say  that  its  seat  is  in  the  liver  and  the  lungs,  and  its 
history  and  the  methods  of  prevention  are  the  same  as  those 
described  in  the  two  above  sections.  The  same  applies  to 

TENIA  TENALLA,  THE  MUTTON  MEASLE. 

This  worm  exists  in  the  loin  muscles  of  the  sheep,  forming 
white  spots  as  large  as  flaxseed  in  the  meat.  It  is  only  noticed  to 
any  considerable  extent  in  Eastern  Europe. 

TENIA  FIMBRIATA.-THE  GALL-DUCT  TAPE  WORM. 
FRINGED  TAPE  WORM. 

This  worm  is  distinctly  an  American  pest.  Its  alleged  native 
home  was  in  Brazil.  Its  common  name  is  the  fringed  tape  worm. 
It  reaches  about  one  foot  in  length,  and  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  width.  It  is  found  in  the  duodenum,  the  large  bowel  next 
to  the  stomach,  and  also  in  the  gall  ducts.  A  large  number  of 
them  have  been  found  at  one  examination  in  the  duodenum, 
sometimes  amounting  to  a  hundred.  Usually  from'  two  to  thirty 
are  found.  When  found  in  a  flock  nearly  every  sheep  will  be  in- 
fested. It  exists  so  abundantly  on  the  Western  plains  as  to  cause 
greater  losses  than  from  any  other  parasites.  It  has  been  found 
in  flocks  in  Utah,  Colorado,  Nebraska  and  westward  to  the 


320  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

Pacific.  It  has  been  found  in  deer  killed  in  many  parts  of  these 
Western  localities,  and  the  author  has  identified  it  in  several 
specimens  sent  to  him  mostly  from  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
from  both  deer  and  sheep. 


FIG.  5.— Adult,  Natural  Size. 


Segments 
near  Head. 

The  illustrations,  fig.  5,  show  the  special  character  of  this 
tape  worm,  with  the  fringed  edges,  of  the  segments.  Its  form  is 
lanceolate  in  its  contracted  state,  but  linear  when  extended. 
When  contracted,  the  fringes  being  drawn  closely  together  appeal- 
like  plush.  The  shedding  of  the  fertile  segments  begins  early  in 
life  and  continues  until  death.  The  head  is  provided  with  four 
cup-like  suckers. 

These  worms  are  found  in  sheep  during  the  whole  year,  but 
none  in  lambs  under  ten  months  old.  It  seems  that  the  breeding 
locality  is  the  duodenum,  as  worms  less  than  one-tenth  of  an  inch 
in  length  have  been  found  in  it,  when  the  gall  ducts  were  en- 
tirely filled.  The  manner  of  reproduction  is  by  the  separation  of 
the  final  segments  as  in  other  tape  worms.  At  two  months  age 
the  worms  are  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  in  four  months  the 
worm  has  grown  to  five  inches  in  length,  at  which  time  they  be- 
gin, to  affect  the  condition  of  the  infected  sheep.  This  effect  is  to 
stop,  or  dwarf,  the  growth;  reduce  fat  lambs  to  skeletons,  thin, 
hidebound,  and  dwarfed,  with  little  wool,  and  that  weak  and  ten- 
der in  the  fiber. 

The  lambs  show  the  first  indications  of  the  disease  by  their 
gradual  loss  of  condition.  A  desire  to  eat  coarse,  indigestible  food, 
a  depraved  appetite  in  fact,  is  one  of  the  first  evidences  of  in- 
fection. Thus  the  sheep  have  been  found  to  eat  large  quantities 
of  the  so-called  loco  or  crazy  weeds  of  the  plains,  but  more  cor- 
rectly the  two  plants  known  by  this  name,  but  correctly  as  As 
traloagus  mollismus,  and  a  closely  related  other  plant,  a  species 
of  Oxytropis.  These  are  well  known  to  the  stockmen  of  the 
Western  plains,  as  being  injurious  to  horses  and  cattle  and  as  wel.l 
to  sheep. 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  321 

The  disturbance  of  the  digestive  functions  by  this  interference 
with  the  circulation  and  distribution  of  the  bile  is  general  in  its 
effect.  The  digestive  process  is  incomplete,  and  the  food  does  not 
nourish.  Hence  the  result  is  starvation  to  such  a  degree  as  these 
functions  are  impaired.  All  the  symptoms,  the  staggering  gait, 
loss  of  fat  and  leanness,  the  watery  effusions,  and  the  foolish  con- 
duct noted,  are  attributable  to  this  defective  nourishment  of  the 
animal,  and  the  weakening  of  the  functions  of  the  brain.  So  far 
all  professional  treatment  has  been  at  fault,  unless  it  may.  be 
said  that  the  proprietary  vermifuges  and  tonics  in  use  have  been 
found  most  useful.  The  manner  of  life  of  this  parasite  should  in- 
dicate to  the  veterinary  the  use  of  such  diffusive  remedies  as  tur- 
pentine podophyllin,  taraxacum,  and  sulphate  of  iron,  or  other 
remedies  having  special  action  on  the  functions  of  the  liver,  and 
that  are  absorbed  into  the  blood,  and  so  pass  through  the  liver 
in  a  most  effective  condition.  It  is  all  the  more  reasonable  that 
the  professional  practitioner  should  adopt  some  of  the  methods 
of  the  specific  compounders,  and  not  think  of  these  as  quacks 
as  long  as  their  remedies  succeed,  while  they  themselves  fail  disas- 
trously to  cope  with  this  deadly  tribe  of  parasites. 

As  with  all  parasitic  diseases  it  is  the  weak  that  go  to  the 
wall.  To  sustain  the  strength,  to  get  the  lambs  past  the  fatal 
stage,  is  to  be  the  effort  of  the  shepherd.  Thus  good  feeding  from 
the  start,  pure  water  infallibly  supplied,  to  avoid  a  season  of  Win- 
ter starvation,  to  provide  shelter  in  bad  weather,  in  fact  for  the 
shepherd  to  do  as  he  would  wish  to  be  done  by,  were  he  to 
change  places  with  his  flock,  should  be  the  rule.  If  it  costs  a 
little  more  to  save  a  .sheep  than  to  let  it  die  miserably  in  the 
Spring,  after  having  been  fed  for  the  whole  Winter,  the  cost  is 
returned  with  some  profit,  while  a  dead  sheep  is  a  profitless 
property. 

THE  BROAD  TAPE  WORM  OF  SHEEP— TENIA 
EXPANSA. 

This  is  the  most  conspicuous  of  all  the  tape  worms  on  ac- 
count of  its  comparatively  enormous  size.  Its  length  reaches  about 
16  feet,  and  European  writers  allege  that  it  has  been  found  con- 
siderably exceeding  this, even  up  to  scores  of  feet;  the  maximum  of 
the  fertile  imagination  of  some  alleged  observers  mounting  up  to 
90  or  100  feet.  These  writers,  it  may  be  observed,  are  natives  of 
the  country  of  the  noted  story  teller,  the  Baron  Muncbausen, 
whose  observations,  as  narrated  by  him,  certainly  tax  the  wildest 
credulity.  We  may  reasonably  rest  on  our  own  observations, 
and  on  the  comparatively  gigantic  size  of  our  own  worms,  and 
stop  at  the  moderate  length  of  five  yards  or  about  one-third  of  the 
length  of  the  whole  of  the  intestinal  canal  of  the  sheep.  It  is 
flat  and  thin,  being  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and 
in  width  from  one-twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  at  the  head  to  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  at  the  other  end,  from  which  the  fertile  seg- 
ments separate  as  in  other  tape  worms.  The  head  is  larger  than 
the  smallest  part  of  the  neck,  and  about  as  large  as  the  head  of 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

the  smallest  pin.  Its  body  is  made  up  of  very  short  but  wide 
joints,  increasing  in  width  from  the  head  to  the  other  extremity, 
at  which,  as  with  other  tape  worms,  the  mature  segments  sep- 
arate and  pass  out  of  the  intestines. 

These  worms  have  no  alimentary  canal,  but  absorb  their 
nutriment  through  the  surface  of  the  segments.  The  em- 
bryos exist  in  the  mature  segments.  They  are  too  small 
to  be  apparent  to  the  sight.  Each  of  them  is  provided 
with,  hooks  by  which  they  attach  themselves  to  the  coats  of  the 
intestines.  The  worms  are  found  all  over  the  United  States,  and 
are  at  work  in  every  month  in  the  year.  In  the  Spring  and  Fail, 
Summer  and  Winter,  they  have  been  found  in  the  intestines  of 
lambs  slaughtered  at  the  abattoirs.  They  are  more  abundant  in 
some  localities  than  in  others,  and  in  the  Summer  than  in  the 
Winter.  Overfed  and  bare  pastures  are'the  most  prolific  sources 
of  infection,  by  which  it  is  apparent  that  the  segments  ejected 
from  the  bowels,  and  falling  on  the  ground,  are  in  some  way 
picked  up  by  the  lambs  and  become  matured  in  their  intestines. 
There  is  no  intermediate  bearer  of  this  parasite. 

The  growth  of  the  young  worms  is  very  rapid.  They  have  been 
found  two  to  five  yards  long  in  lambs  two  to  four  months  old, 
which  is  equivalent  to  a  foot  to  two  feet  of  growth  in  a  week.  All  the 
knowledge  possessed  by  careful  investigators  goes  to  prove  be- 
yond question  that  this  worm  does  not  pass  any  stage  of  its  exis- 
tence in  the  bodies  of  any  other  animals  of  any  kind  than  the 
sheep,  and  its  life  history  is  thus  simple  and  devoid  of  the  interest 
in  this  regard  attaching  to  other  tape  worms. 

The  existence  of  the  worms  becomes  evident  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  white  segments  attached  to  the  small  balls  of  dung 
voided  by  the  sheep,  or  by  these  adhering  to  the  wool  about  the 
top  of  the  tail.  This,  however,  only  happens  after  the  lamb  has* 
been  infested  some  time  and  the  segments  of  the  tape  worms 
have  become  matured.  The  worst  results  to  the  sheep  by  the 
presence  of  these  worms  seem  to  be  due  to  the  intestinal  irrita- 
tion set  up  by  them,  and  the  reflex  action  of  this  on  the  nervous 
system.  But  the  worms  obstruct  the  intestines  as  well  by  their 
large  size,  irritate  it  by  their  movements,  produce  excessive  intes- 
tinal secretions,  non-assimilation  of  food,  and  as  well  abstract 
nutritious  matter  from  their  victims  for  their  own  growth.  The 
results  are  necessarily  the  wasting  of  the  lambs  which  become 
poor,  unthrifty,  and  hidebound,  and  frequently  pot  bellied  by 
distension  from  gas  in  the  bowels,  or  shrunken  and  gaunt  for 
want  of  sufficient  support. 

The  symptoms  in  addition  to  these  are  pale  membranes 
(paper  skin),  dry,  harsh  fleece  without  yolk  or  oil,  a  tottering  gait, 
and  the  lambs  eat  and  drink  more  than  with  their  natural  appe- 
tite, but  at  the  same  time  fail  to  digest  their  food  or  thrive  upon 
it.  Finally  diarrhea  becomes  more  and  more  severe  and  death 
occurs  by  actual  starvation  and  exhaustion. 

If,  however,  the  lambs  can  be  safely  carried  over  until  the 
worms  are  all  ejected  as  segments,  and  no  fresh  infection  occurs, 
recovery  is  rapid  and  the  lambs  soon  become  fat  and  thrifty. 


5.1 

p-  £ 

(*%     3 

—    o 


324  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

As  these  worms  are  readily  expelled  and  always  within  reach 
by  effective  antidotes,  treatment  is  always  hopeful.  The  popular 
remedies  in  the  market  prepared  by  experts  and  well  endorsed 
by  known  persons,  may  generally  be  relied  upon;  and  by  following 
directions  have  been  found  effective.  Outside  of  these  the  use 
of  turpentine,  in  half  ounce  doses  on  the  empty  stomach  for  a  few 
days;  the  roots  of  the  male  fern  powdered  in  two  ounce  doses; 
or  the  etheric  oil  of  the  root  in  one  dram  doses,  given  in  two  to 
four  ounces  of  castor  oil  for  a  full  grown  sheep  have  all  been 
found  more  or  less  effective.  Tansy  in  two  to  six  dram  doses  has 
been  recommended  as  a  preventative,  arid  is  a  useful  ingredient  in 
some  of  the  proprietary  worm  powders.  Regular  use  of  salt  with 
the  standard  tonic  mixture  given  on  page  314  of  this  chapter  has 
been  found  a  valuable  element  of  safety  in  the  way  of  prevention 
against  this  pest. 

THE  STOMACH  ROUND  WORMS— STRONdYLUS  CON- 
TORTUS— THE  TWISTED  STRONGYLE. 

The  twisted  strongyle  inhabits  the  fourth  stomach  of  the 
sheep  and  the  goat.  It  is  by  no  means  a  serious  pest  except  in  the 
flocks  that  are  neglected  and  in  poor  condition,  and  unable  to 
resist  misfortune.  It  is  from  five  to  ten  inches  in  length  (the  male 
is  one-third  shorter),  has  a  reddish-colored  body,  and  the  female 
is  marked  with  a  spiral  double  line  entwining  the  whole  length 
of  it.  It  is  also  found  twisted  in  loops,  whence  the  name  contor- 
tus.  They  live  their  whole  life  in  the  fourth  stomach,  in  which 
they  set  up  serious  irritation,  besides  greatly  interfering  with  the 
nutrition  of  the  sheep  and  the  abstraction  of  blood  from  the 
coats  of  the  stomach.  Their  red  color  is  supposed  to  be  due  to 
the  blood  thus  drawn.  The  symptoms  arising  from  the  presence 
of  this  parasite  in  the  stomach  are  weakness,  paleness  of  the 
skin  and  membranes,  some  fever,  diarrhea,  and  wasting  of  the 
body  generally. 

This  stomach  worm,  like  the  common  throat  and  lung 
strongyle,  has  no  other  host  than  the  sheep,  passing  its  life  in  the 
stomach,  its  eggs  or  mature  body  filled  with  eggs  being  ejected 
with  the  dung  of  the  old  sheep  which  are  able  to  resist  its  effects 
better  than  the  weaker  lambs,  and  these  eggs  are  taken  up  with 
the  grass  of  pastures  by  the  lambs.  It  is  quite  possible  that 
the  young  lambs  may  be  infested  directly  by  the  sheep,  whose  tag 
locks  on  the  hind  parts— smeared  with  dung— may  have  many  of 
the  eggs  of  these  worms  on  them,  and  these  being  sometimes 
sucked  by  the  young  lambs  hunting  ignorantly  for  the  teats,  be- 
come means  of  infection.  That  sucking  lambs  are  infested  by 
these  worms  can  hardly  be  explained  otherwise. 

The  presence  of  these  worms  in  the  lambs  cannot  be  surely 
known  except  by  examination  after  death^aUhough  the  symptoms 
are  fairly  well  sufficient  for  a  diagnosis  by  the  veterinarian.  The 
most  successful  treatment  known  to  the  author  has  been  by 
small,  frequent  doses  of  turpentine  in  milk,  in  the  proportion  of 
one  part  of  the  former  to  eight  or  ten  of  the  latter,  and  two  ounces 


DISEASES  OF   SHEEP.  325 

or  tablespoonfuls  being  a  dose  for  a  lamb  half  grown.  A  standard 
preparation  for  this  disease  is  made  up  as  follows:  Three  pounds 
of  salt  and  half  a  pound  of  saltpeter,  are  dissolved  in  three  gallons 
of  warm  water,  and  half  a  pound  of  ground  ginger  is  then  well 
infused  in  the  liquid,  kept  warm  for  a  few  hours.  When  it  has 
cooled  to  milk  warm,  24  ounces  of  turpentine  is  added,  and  the 
whole  well  shaken.  Two  ounces  is  a  dose  for  one  lamb.  Along 
with  this  medicine,  given  on  an  empty  stomach  early  in  the  morn- 
ing, the  standard  tonic  mixture  should  be  given  alternate'y.  As  with 
all  diseases  of  this  kind  the  most  nutritious  and  easily  digestible 
food  is  required,  as  linseed  and  oatmeal  mashes,  the  best  hay  and 
some  sliced  carrots  or  parsnips  for  the  winter  feeding,  and  good 
clover  pasture  in  the  Summer. 

INTESTINAL  ROUND  WORMS. 

American  sheep  harbor  at  least  six  species  of  round  worms, 
all  of  them  imported  from  Europe,  and  one  which  is  native  to  this 
continent.  These  various  species  are: 

Strongylus  Filicollis,  Strongylus  Ventricousus,  found  in  the 
duodenum;  Dochmius  cornus,  Ascaris  lumbricoides,  found  in  the 
small  intestine;  Tricocephalus  affinis,  found  in  the  caecum  or 
blind  gut;  Sclorostoma  hypostomum,  found  in  the  large  intestine; 
Oesophagostoma  Columbianum,  found  in  the  large  intestine. 

None  of  these  are  of  any  serious  importance  except  the  last, 
which  is  widely  spread,  and  causes  such  a  conspicuous  injury  to 
the  intestines  as  to  have  been  given  a  special  name,  knotty  guts, 
by  the  butchers. 

The  symptoms  produced  by  all  or  any  of  these  worms  are  gen- 
eral debility,  indigestion,  and  resulting  emaciation.  These  are  the 
results  of  absence  of  nutrition  due  to  the  interference  with  the 
digestive  functions,  by  reason  of  the  constant  irritation  of  the 
bowels.  It  is  mostly  the  case  that  a  sheep  or  lamb  is  infected  by 
more  than  one  of  these  parasites  at  once,  and  in  many  instances 
it  has  been  found  that  several  of  them  are  harbored  by  the  sheep 
together.  It  seems  as  if  every  sheep  is  infested  less  or  more, 
and  even  those  in  the  best  condition  and  the  fattest  that  come 
into  the  butchers'  hands,  have  a  few  of  these  parasites,  and  some  so 
many  that  it  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  the  sheep  could  maintain 
their  high  condition. 

As  a  matter  of  interest  these  parasites  are  described,  but 
treatment  is  so  difficult  arid  there  are  so  many  other  causes  by 
which  the  special  symptoms  may  be  produced,  that  it  is  better 
for  all  concerned  to  study  the  means  of  prevention  rather  than 
those  of  improbable  cures. 

It  is  known  that  sheep  may  become  infected  with  at  least  one 
of  this  kind  of  worms  through  the  swine  with  whom  they  may  be 
pastured.  Thus  the  large,  round  worm,  Ascaris  Lumbricoides,  has 
bean  found  in  sheep  although  it  is  a  specific  parasite  for  swine. 
It  is  also  known  that  pastures  become  seriously  infected  by  sev- 
eral kinds  of  worms  that  are  found  in  sheep,  and  the  investiga- 
tions of  the  scientific  students  have  shown  conclusively  that  it  is 


326  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

in  this  way  that  the  majority  of  sheep  and  lambs  become  diseased. 
To  dress  the  pastures  with  fresh,  air-slaked  lime  in  the  season 
when  the  flocks  are  not  pasturing  is  an  excellent  preventive 
against  all  this  class  of  parasites,  and  the  regular  culture  of  the 
land,  the  plowing  and  the  growing  of  crops  in  the  regular  rota- 
tion; the  completion  of  which  is  the  seeding  of  the  land  with 
grass  and  clover,  will  both  be  a  help  to  the  farmer  who  keeps 
sheep,  but  of  course  of  no  avail  to  those  who  range  their  sheep. 
These  must  depend  on  those  medicinal  preparations  made  for  this 
special  purpose  of  avoiding  these  parasites,  or  tonic  mixtures  by 
which  the  natural  strength  and  vitality  of  the  sheep  may  be 
maintained,  for  it  is  the  feeble  and  the  ill-nourished  that  fall  as 
an  easy  prey  to  these  parasites. 

OESOPHAGOSTOMA  COLUMBIANUM-NODULAR  DISEASE 
OF  THE  INTESTINES— KNOTTY  GUTS. 

It  ia  only  in  recent  years  that  this  parasite  has  been  known 
as  the  cause  of  the  disease  commonly  named  above.     Less  than 


Fie.  7.— a,  a,  Male  and  female,  natural  size;  b,  b,  Male  and  female, 
enlarged.    (After  Raines.) 

ten  years  ago  it  was  discovered  in  some  investigations  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  knots  or  small  tumors  with  which  the  intestines 
of  the  sheep  were  more  or  less  covered.  This  investigation  curi- 
ously enough  arose  from  the  connection  of  the  sheep's  intestines 
with  sausages.  These  sausage  casings,  of  course  should  be  perfect, 
and  above  suspicion,  however  open  to  this  the  contents  of  them 
might  be.  The  common  nodules  by  which  these  skins  were  more  or 
less  unfitted  for  this  use,  made  them  unsalable,  and  a  loss  to  the 
butchers.  And  thus  the  matter  became  a  subject  of  investigation 
with  the  result  of  discovering  that  the  disease  was  due  to  a  hith- 
erto unknown  parasite  of  the  sheep. 

The  cause  of  this  disease  is  a  round  worm,  and  one  entirely 
distinct  from  any  other  known  species.  The  male  is  about  half  an 
inch  in  length,  the  female  a  little  longer.  The  head  of  it  is  bent 
into  somewhat  the  form  of  a  hook.  In  the  sheep  the  adult  worms 
live  in  the  large  intestine,  the  young  ones  are  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  bowels  encysted  in  small  tumors,  at  first  no  larger  than  the 
head  of  a  pin,  filled  with  a  sort  of  cheesy  matter.  How  the  para- 
site enters  the  sheep  there  has  been  no  satisfactory  information 
gained  so  far;  so  that  we  have  to  deal  with  these  facts.  First 
these  nodular  swellings  or  tumors  are  found  on  the  inner  walls 
of  the  intestines.  Of  course  as  the  walls  of  the  intestines  are 
the  absorbent  organs  by  which  the  digested  food  is  taken  into  the 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  327 

circulation  to  be  completely  fitted  for  the  support  of  life,  what- 
ever interferes  with  this  function  is  a  cause  of  serious  disease, 
tending  to  deprive  the  animal  of  its  due  support,  and  thus  produc- 
ing general  want  of  nutrition  and  resulting  weakness.  This  is 
precisely  the  result  of  this  parasite  and  is  so  far  operative  as  its 
effect  on  the  bowels  may  be. 

The  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  signs  of  general  weakness, 
paleness  of  the  lips  and  eyes,  thin  pale  skin,  loss  of  flesh,  dry, 
harsh  fleece,  and  more  or  less  diarrhea  which  soon  produces 
marked  emaciation.  These  results  are  very  gradual  and  slow  in 
their  course,  the  sheep  or  lamb  seems  to  be  not  doing  well,  but 
the  advance  of  the  disease  and  the  continuous  change  for  the 
worse  occurs  so  gradually  that  the  shepherd  scarcely  realizes  the 
extent  of  the  injury  until  the  more  serious  symptoms  occur.  A 
persistent  diarrhea  is  the  most  marked  characteristic  of  Ihe 
disease. 

The  tumors  increase  in  size  as  the  worm  within  grows.  In 
time  the  worms  escape  and  remain  loose  in  the  intestines,  there 
becoming  full  grown  and  reproducing  their  kind.  Not  all  the 
young  worms  are  thus  encysted  in  these  tumors,  but  only  as  it 
were  a  sufficient  number  to  insure  the  continuance  of  the  race, 
should  by  some  accident  the  worms  at  large  be  destroyed.  Con- 
sidering this  fact  on  the  general  knowledge  and  experience  with 
other  parasites  it  might  be  well  supposed  and  believed  that  this 
encystment  of  a  portion  of  the  race  should  be  one  of  the  means 
by  which  nature  provided  for  the  continuance  of  life,  of  what- 
ever form  it  may  be,  and  that  in  case  the  sheep  died  from  the 
effects  of  the  parasite,  there  should  be  a  remnant  left — as  we  say — 
for  seed;  and  by  the  intervention  of  some  intermediate  bearer 
the  parasite  might  have  its  life  insured,  so  to  say,  that  the  race 
might  not  be  completely  extinguished. 

Treatment  in  such  conditions  as  these  is  evidently  a  difficult 
matter  to  suggest.  For  the  worms  that  are  loose  in  the  bowels 
the  common  antidotes  might  be  useful,  such  as  turpentine,  given 
in  the  usual  manner,  or  other  medicines  destructive  to  these 
creatures.  These  combined  with  tonics  and  with  general  good 
care  and  feeding,  with  pure  water,  may  tide  over  the  period  of 
life  of  the  race  or  make  the  animal  an  uninviting  place  for  the 
parasite  to  live.  As  to  the  encysted  worms,  these  are  beyond 
reach  unless  it  may  be  of  such  easily  absorbed  remedies  as  tur- 
pentine, which  passes  through  the  blood  and  thus  reaches  every 
part  of  the  system. 

It  is  clear  that  such  methods  of  prevention  as  may  be  found 
effective  will  be  the  most  useful.  And  one  of  the  most  effective 
of  these  is  a  rotation  of  crops,  and  short  feeding  intervals  be- 
tween the  crops  not  exceeding  one  season  at  the  most.  If  one 
might  be  able  to  start  with  a  flock  of  completely  unaffected  sheep, 
and  then  by  a  wise  and  thoroughly  managed  continuous  quaran- 
tine, so  to  speak,  by  which  infection  may  be  averted,  then  the 
land  may  be  completely  freed  from  this  obnoxious  parasite,  and  if 
this  method  were  generally  followed,  and  no  fresh  stock  be  intro- 


828  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

duced  until  it  be  known  to  be  sound  and  free  from  infection, 
then,  and  then  only,  will  this  parasite  be  brought  under  con- 
trol. As  it  is,  by  the  how-not-to-do-it  method,  this  as  all  other 
of  the  parasites  of  the  sheep  are  visibly  increasing  in  vast  num- 
bers, and  thus  as  we  may  say  we  are  but  at  the  beginning  of  a 


FIG.  8.— CESOPHAGOSTOMA  COLUMBIAN UM. 

Caecum  showing  wall  filled  with  Nodules  as  seen  at  a  and  b.    About 

one-half  natural  size.     (Original.) 

crisis  of  what  the  end  may  be  no  one  can  think,  or  assert, 
but  every  one  may  consider  it  as  a  serious  matter  for  thought 
and  then  due  action.  The  importance  of  this  great  and  most  an- 
cient industry  of  our  race  cannot  surely  be  seriously  threatened  in 
these  days  of  intelligence  and  of  scientific  adaptation  of  means 
to  ends  through  all  the  affairs  of  mankind.  We  must  always  think 
of  that  truly  scientific  maxim,  an  axiom  truly,  that  is  an  self-evi- 
dent truth,  that  the  fittest  only  will  survive.  And  the  American 
shepherd  must  make  himself  fit  by  study  of  his  flocks,  knowing 
their  full  needs,  and  in  all  the  ways  that  circumstances  may  indi- 
cate and  suggest,  adapt  everything  to  this  one  end,  viz.,  to  make 
himself  thoroughly  conversant  with  the"  needs  of  his  flocks,  and 
then  apply  himself  with  every  possible  effort  to  meet  these  most 
effectively. 

THE  FLUKE  DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 

Among  other  deadly  parasites  of  sheep  the  so-called  fluke 
worms,  known  as  Fasciola  hepatica  and  Distoma  lanceolatum  are 
the  deadliest.  They  have  been,  known  to  destroy  two  million 
sheep  in  England  in  a  single  year,  and  several  years  ago  the  same 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 


329 


parasites  destroyed  several  .times  as  many  in  Australia.  Unfor- 
tunately we  have  it  with  us,  but  not  nearly  to  the  same  extent; 
probably  Because  of  the  muca  smaller  proportion  of  sheep  to  our 
vastly  greater  territory.  The  history  of  -this  parasite  is  quite  simi- 
lar to  that  of  other  injurious  enemies  of  the  sheep — as  the  tape 
worms  for  instance — in  that  it  needs  an  intermediate  bearer  in 


FIG.  9.— Mature  Fluke. 

which  to  pass  the  first  stage  of  its  existence.  This  is  a  mollusk,  a 
species  of  snail,  which  inhabits  fresh  water  marshes.  The  curious 
history  of  this  parasite  is  of  great  interest  to  the  American  shep- 
herd, because  we  have  the  bearer  of  it  here  and  the  creature  itself. 
It  is  comparatively  abundant  in  the  marshes  of  the  Northwest 
and  has  been  found  in  the  States  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 
In  the  former  locality  it  has  been  found  in  the  livers  of  deer  and 
rabbits;  and  in  rabbits  in  Pennsylvania.  It  has  also  been  found 


FIG.  10.  FIG.  11.  FIG.  12. 

The  Fluke  Egg.      Egg  with  Embryo.    The  Embryo. 


FIG.  13. 
Snail  Enlarged. 


in  the  flock  of  Southdowns  owned  by  the  late  Royal  Phelps,  on 
Long  Island,  N.  Y.;  but  in  this  case  the  parasite  was  unquestion- 
ably imported  in  the  sheep,  which  were  Southdowns  presented  to 
Mr.  Phelps  by  an  English  friend.  This  introduction  of  the  pest 
was  doubtless  successful  in  establishing  it  in  that  locality;  as  three 
years  had  elapsed  since  the  sheep  had  been  imported. 

The  mollusk  in  which  the  fluke  passes  its  larval  stage  is  a 
snail,  but  it  is  not  that  the  sheep  devour  the  snails,  and  so  take 
up  the  parasite,  but  the  young  of  the  fluke  are  taken  up  by  the 
sheep  as  they  drink  at  stagnant  ponds  or  water  holes  in  marshy 
ground,  where  in  an  intermediate  stage  they  pass  a  portion  of  their 
existence.  Then,  finding  their  way  from  the  stomach,  to  the  liver, 


330 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


they  enter  the  gall  bladder  and  its  connected  ducts,  where  they 
create  such  a  serious  functional  disturbance  as  to  cause  an  over- 
flow of  the  bile  into  the  blood,  by  which  parts  of  the  body — 
the  eyes,  skin  and  fat — become  yellow,  and  a  yellow  serum  col- 
lects in  the  abdomen,  causing  the  diseased  sheep  to  appear  "pot- 


Fio.  14. 
A  Sporocyst. 


PIG.  15. 
A  Mature  and  Dividing  Sporocyst. 


bellied."  At  first  the  sheep  appear  to  thrive  better  than 
usual  and  rapidly  make  fat,  which,  however,  is  yellowish  in  color. 
Very  soon  'the  characteristic  dropsy  appears,  a  bag  of  fluid  forms 
'under  the  jaws,  severe  diarrhea  occurs,  and  the  animal  soon 
becomes  emaciated  and  perishes  miserably  by  a  slow  wasting  until 
completely  exhausted. 

As  the  fluke  does  not  inhabit  salt  water,  salt  marshes  are  safe 
pasture  grounds;  but  it  does  not  follow  that  salt  given  to  the 
sheep  is  any  sort  of  preventive  or  remedy.  In  fact,  cure  of  the 


FIG.  17.— Young  and  Mature  Redia. 

disease  is  very  rare,  and  only  by  the  aid  of  accidental  causes,  so 
that  this  disease,  is  a  true  pestilence,  killing  nearly  every  sh.eep 
attacked,  and  it  is  only  by  due  means  of  prevention  that  it  is 
possible  to  avoid  it.  These  are  the  drainage  of  wet  pastures,  the 
use  of  pure  water  from  wells,  and  to  put  imported  sheep  through 
a  sufficient  course  of  quarantine;  carefully  burning  all  the  manure 
made  by  them  so  as  to  destroy  any  possible  source  of  infesting  the 
land. 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP  331 

ILLUSTRATIONS  DESCRIBED  IN  DETAIL. 

Fig.  9. — Mature  fluke — flesh  color,  one  inch  to  one  and  one- 
third  inches  long-  Circle  at  top  is  sucker  that  attaches  to  diseased 
part.  Mature  fluke  produces  as  many  as  7,000,000  eggs.  Fig.  10  is 
fluke's  egg,  oval  with  transparent  shell.  An  embryo  forms  in  two 
weeks  when  temperature  is  80  degrees.  Fig-  11,  egg  with  embryo 
formed.  Fig.  12,  embryo  hatched.  The  broad  end  is  directed  for- 
ward in  swimming,  in  its  center  is  a  peg-like  projection  used  in 
boring.  If  embryo  finds  the  Limnoeus  truncatulus  (fig.  13)  it  com- 
mences to  bore.  It  bores  until  it  strikes  the  snail's  lung  where 
the  embryo  fluke  develops.  The  form  of  embryo  changes  to  fig. 
14 — the  1st  generation  in  the  snail  termed  sporocyst — a  bag  of 
germs.  This  sporocyst  develops  an  offspring,  their  2nd  generation 
called  the  redia.  Fig.  15  is  a  matured  sporocyst  containing  a  num- 
ber of  redia.  The  largest  one  at  lower  end  is  well  developed  and 
ready  to  force  through  the  walls  of  the  parent — the  wound  heals 
up  and  germs  remaining  continue  to  grow.  The  redia  go  from 
the  lung  to  the  other  organs  of  the  snail.  Fig.  16  is  a  full  grown 
redia  with  a  mouth  and  intestine  and  produces  the  3rd  generation. 
The  offspring  of  the  redia  (fig.  17)  are  tad-pole  shaped  and  called 
cercaria.  This  3rd  generation  of  the  snail  enters  the  sheep  and 
produces  the  liver  fluke.  The  cercaria  leaves  the  snail  and  becomes 
attached  to  and  encysted  to  grass  stalks.  These  cysts  remain  dor- 
mant until  swallowed  by  the  sheep.  The  number  of  cercaria  de- 
scended from  a  single  fluke  egg  is  from  200  to  1,000  or  more — 
thus  a  single  fluke  may  through  the  changes  described  above  pro- 
duce more  than  100,000,000  descendants  in  a  single  season.  About 
six  weeks  elapse  from  the  swallowing  of  the  tad-pole  before  the 
fluke  is  matured  and  begins  to  produce  eggs  in  the  liver  of  the 
sheep. 

THE  SHEEP  EOT  FLY-OESTRUS  OVIS. 

Doubtless  most  of  the  diseases  of  the  sheep  that  are  least 
understood,  even  by  scientific  students,  at  the  present  time, 
are  those  due  to  the  presence  of  internal  parasites,  of  which  there 
are  at  least  over  twenty  in  number,  that  are  well  known  and  de- 
scribed. The  majority  of  these  are  tape  worms  or  thread  worms, 
one  only  is  a  fly.  We  will  close  the  list  with  the  last,  as  it  is 
well  known  to  all  concerned,  and  the  most  common  of  this  class 
of  the  enemies  of  the  sheep. 

This  disagreeable  pest  is  a  sort  of  connecting  link  between 
the  two  classes  of  parasites,  external  and  internal  ones.  As  a 
fly,  it  much  resembles  a  bee,  and  as  it  buzzes  about  the  sheeps' 
heads  these  animals  evince  great  alarm,  lowering  their  noses  to  the 
ground  and  stamping  violently  with  their  fore  feet.  The  fly  darts 
to  the  sheep's  head  at  every  opportunity  and  deposits  an  egg 
on  the  nostril,  while  still  on  the  wing.  It  is  the  work  of  an 
instant,  and  the  mischief  is  done  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye. 

The  "egg"  thus  deposited  is  a  living  creature,  a  minute  white 
grub,  scarcely  differing  from  that  of  the  common  flesh  fly  which 


832 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


we  may  see  deposited  in  clusters  on  meat,  much  to  the  disgust 
of  the  annoyed  housewife.  The  author ^has  spent  some  hours 
in  watching  this  habit  of  the  fly,  using  a  hampered  sheep  as  the 
subject,  and  has  collected  several  specimens  of  the  maggot.  The 
maggot  very  soon  begins  to  move  in  a  wriggling  manner,  drawing 


FIG.  18  (a). 


FIG.  19  (6). 


FIG.  20  (c). 


Fig.  18.— Adult  Female  Gad- Fly— slightly  enlarged. 
Fig.  19.— Full-grown  Grub— natural  size. 

Fig.  20.— Head  of  full-grown  Grub— highly  magnified— showing  hooks 
by  which  the  Grub  attaches  itself  to  the  mucous  membrane. 

itself  into  the  nostril  and  disappearing  in  the  nasal  passage.  In 
one  day— nearly  all  spent  in  observing  this  single  sheep — eighteen 
of  these  larva  were  deposited  on  its  nostrils,  and  it  appeared 
that  but  one  fly  was  engaged  in  the  business  that  day.  The 
rest  of  thv  flock  had  hidden  near  a  fallen  tree  in  the  pasture, 
thrusting  their  noses  close  to  the  space  between  the  tree  and  the 
soil,  or  were  lying  in  fence  corners  with  their  noses  under  the 
lowest  rail,  or  huddled  together  with  their  noses  buried  in  each 
other's  fleeces.  This  is  the  method  by  which  the  fly  deposits 
its  living  eggs,  or  newly  born  living  young,  upon  its  host,  the  un- 
happy sheep.  The  fly  is  shown  al,  fig.  18  (a);  its  larva  fully 
grown  at  (b),  the  hooks  by  which  the  grub  draws  itself  up  the 
nostril  and  attaches  itself  to  the  membrane  lining  the  cavity  of 
the  skull  are  shown  at  (c),  and  at  fig.  21  is  shown  the  part  of  the 
skull  in  which  the  grub  passes  fully  three-fourths  of  the  year, 
emerging  when  fully  grown  and  falling  to  the  ground  into  which 
it  burrows  a  little  space,  and  remains  until  the  warm  weather, 
when  it  begins  active  business  in  reproducing  its  race.  Doubtless 
the  greater  number  of  these  grubs  peinsh  in  the  interval  between 
emerging  from  the  sheep  and  completing  the  final  transformation 
into  the  fly,  falling  a  prey  to  moles,  birds,  and  carnivorous 
beetles;  but  sufficient  number  escape  to  continue  the  race  and 
make  the  sheep's  summer  life,  otherwise  happy,  a  miserable  one. 
The  parasite  seems  to  do  little  real  harm  to  the  sheep  except 
to  torment  it,  unless  they  are  quite  numerous,  when  the  irritation 
seems  to  cause  so  much  restlessness  that  the  sheep  do  not  thrive, 
but  remain  poor.  The  effect  of  numbers  of  the  grubs  is  to  inflame 
the  membrane,  to  cause  much  irritation,  and  at  times  to  cause 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 


333 


bleeding,  the  blood  trickling  down  the  nasfl  passages  and 
streaking  the  copious  mucus  which  is  snorted  out  by  the  sheep 
with  violent  efforts.  Sometimes  the  grubs  are  thus  ejected  by  the 
violence  of  these  efforts. 

There  seems  to  be  no  practicable  remedy  even  by  prevention, 
better  than  in  common  use,  which  is  to  apply  a  soft,  sticky, 
offensive  substance  to  the  sheep's  nose  by  which  the  eggs 
are  destroyed,  or  the  flies  driven  away.  A  mixture  of  common 
tar  softened  somewhat  by  some  offensive  oil,  is  frequently  used 
with  good  effects.  This  tar  is  a  wholesome  thing  for  the  sheep  as 
an  excellent  tonic  and  antiseptic,  so  that  two  good  uses  are  made 
of  this  application. 

When -the  danger  has  been  greater  on  account  of  the  larger 
number  of  the  flies  attacking  the  flock,  the  sheeps'  noses  need  to 


FIG  21.— Sheep's  head;  sinuses  invaded  by  Grub. 

be  continually  protected  by  this  device,  and  a  mixture  of  the  tar 
with  the  strongest  smelling  fish  oil  may  be  used,  by  smearing  the 
sheeps'  noses  writh  it  daily,  or  every  second  or  third  day. 

In  cases  where  the  sheep  have  been  seriously  attacked  by 
the  fly,  and  numerous  grubs  have  lodged  in  the  nasal  sinuses  on 
each  side  of  the  head  and  just  above  the  eyes  as  shown  at  fig. 
21,  an  effective  remedy  is  to  inject  a  mixture  of  linseed  oil  and 
turpentine,  in  equal  parts,  by  means  of  a  suitable  syringe  made 
for  this  purpose.  This  instrument  has  a  long,  slender  nozzle,  by 
which  the  sinus  may  be  reached,  and  it  should  be  made  with  three 
or  four  openings  at  the  end  so  that  the  liquid  may  be  discharged 
in  a  sort  of  spray,  01  diffused  stream,  and  so  reach  the  grubs. 
Another  plan  borrowed  from  the  Scotch  shepherds,  who  have  the 
advantage  of  inheriting  a  large  amount  of  old  fashioned  lore  from 


334  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

their  fathers  and  grandfathers,  through  numerous  generations,  is 
to  first  apply  tobacco  smoke  in  the  way  mentioned,  and  the  re- 
laxing efi'ect  of  this  causes  the  grubs  to  loosen  their  hold  on  the 
membrane,  when  an  immediate  dose  of  fine  Scotch  snuff,  blown 
into  the  sinus  through  the  nozzle  of  the  syringe,  or  any  suitable 
tube,  starts  so  violent  a  fit  of  sneezing  that  the  grubs  are  ejected 
with  considerable  force. 

When  a  valuable  animal  is  thus  distressed,  and  it  is  desired 
to  relieve  it  when  serious  danger  threatens,  it  is  no  difficult  mat- 
ter to  remove  the  grubs  by  the  operation  known  as  trepanning. 
This  is  to  open  the  skull  by  removing  a  portion  of  the  bone  by  an 
instrument  specially  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and — which  operat- 
ing in  a  circular  way  in  the  manner  of  a  carpenter's  bit — cuts  a 
round  piece  of  bone  from  the  skull,  the  flap  of  skin  having  been 
first  cut  loose  on  three  sides  and  laid  back.  The  grubs  are  then 
removed  by  forceps.  The  flap  of  skin  which  is  someAvhat  larger 
than  the  opening  made,  is  replaced  and  held  by  surgeon's  rubber 
plaster,  to  be  protected  by  a  suitable  bandage.  The  wound  heals 
at  once,  and  although  the  s'heep  will  have  a  soft  spot  in  its 
head,  as  we  say,  yet  it  will  not  at  all  interfere  wi'th  its  ordinary 
conduct  or  health. 

To  find  the  precise  spot  required  for  the  operation  this  plan 
is  suggested.  Shave  the  wool  or  hair  from  the  part  to  be  operated 
on.  Then  draw  a  line  across  the  head  from  the  point  of  the  mid- 
dle of  each  eyebrow,  divide  this  line  by  another  passing  from  the 
tip  of  the  nose  in  the  exact  middle  to  the  middle  of  the  forehead. 
The  diagram  here  given  will  help  to  choose  the  precise  spot  for 
the  operation,  which  is  in  each  angle  between  the  lines. 

The  means  of  prevention  con- 
sist in  the  immediate  burning  of 
all  heads  of  dead  sheep,  and  this 
not  only  on  account  of  this 
pest  but  for  the  infinitely  more 
serious  object  of  doing  away 
with  the  larvae  of  the  tape 
worms  which  harbor  in  the  brain, 
and  do  great  damage  to  the  flocks, 
as  previously '  commented  on  in 
FIG.  22. -Diagram  for  Trepanning,  this  chapter.  If  the  Heads  of 

sheep  are  thrown  out,  the  larvae 

of  the  fly,  or  of  the  worm,  may  be  given  a  very  effective  means 
of  surviving,  for  the  future  annoyance  and  loss  of  the  shepherd. 

ALBUMIN  ART  A. 

This  disease  consists  of  inflammation  of  the  kidneys.  It  is 
accompanied  by  conspicuous  symptoms  as  a  straddling,  awkward 
gait,  and  tenderness  of  the  loins  which  give  way  when  pressed. 
The  urine  is  thick  and  ropy,  and  in  rams  there  is  a  collection 
of  matter  at  the  orifice  of  the  sheath.  The  disease  soon  develops 
into  dropsy,  when  the  belly  becomes  filled  with  yellow  serum 
and  is  conspicuously  enlarged.  The  treatment  of  this  disease  is 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  335 

more  in  variation  of  food  than  in  medicine.  The  bowels  should 
be  kept  free  by  warm  bran  mashes,  and  if  necessary  by  the  use 
of  saline  laxatives  as  Epsom  salts  in  two  ounce  doses,  given  daily. 
If  the  kidneys  fail  to  act  do  not  give  diuretics,  but  foment  the 
loins  with  hot  water  and  mustard.  If  this  is  not  effective  apply 
fomentations  of  a  strong  decoction  of  digitalis  to  the  loins.  The 
tonic  mixture  will  be  of  great  value  in  restoring  the  action  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels. 

ANTHRAX— BLACK  QUARTER— BLACK  LEG— BRAXY. 

This  disease,  called  braxy  by  the  English  and  Scotch  shep- 
herds, is  rapidly  fatal,  and  the  first  information  of  its  appearance 
in  a  flock  is  usually  the  dead  sheep  lying  in  the  pasture  in  the  early 
morning.  It  is  a  special  form  of  the  disease  of  cattle  commonly 
known  as  splenic  fever,  or  Texan  fever;  but  differs  from  the  com- 
mon disease  in  several  ways.  It  is  not  believed  to  be  contagious  to 
other  animals,  hence  it  is  due,  when  prevalent,  to  some  unwhole- 
some condition  of  the  feed  or  water,  or  continued  indigestion  by 
which  the  blood  becomes  loaded  with  impure  matter. 

The  symptoms  are  red  blood-shot  eyes,  an  excited  and  alarmed 
expression  of  the  sick  animals,  a  full,  rapid  pulse,  quick  breathing, 
hot,  dry  mouth,  the  limbs  and  body — especially  the  belly — are  hot 
and  the  skin  is  red,  the  urine  is  dark  colored  and  scanty,  the 
bowels  are  costive,  the  dung  is  slimy,  and  the  animal  staggers 
about  as  if  to  fall.  It  generally  stands  near  a  fence  or  a  building, 
with  the  head  doAvn  and  unable  to  notice  anything. 

The  later  symptoms  are  harshness  of  the  wool,  which,  if 
pulled,  comes  off  in  handfuls;  the  animal  becomes  insensible,  falls, 
struggles  a  little  and  dies;  all  this  occurring  in  a  few  hours. 

Treatment  is  of  no  use.  The  only  thing  to  be  done  is  to  un- 
derstand the  causes  of  the  diseas£,  and  prevent  or  avoid  them. 
After  death  the  body  is  found  already  far  advanced  in  putridity. 
The  flesh  under  the  skin,  where  handling  causes  a  sort  of  crackling 
sound,  especially  on  the  shoulder  and  the  loins,  is  found  to  be 
filled  with  gas  and  much  swollen,  the  blood  is  thick  and  black, 
whence  the  name  of  the  disease — anthrax,  which  means  black. 
The  belly  is  filled  with  a  red  liquid,  the  omasum — the  third  stom- 
ach or  maniplies — is  impacted  and  filled  between  the  leaves  with 
hard,  dry,  undigested  food;  the  heart  is  filled  with  black  blood, 
and  the  lungs  very  red. 

Escape  from  this  disease  is  a  matter  only  of  prevention.  There 
is  no  time  for  this  to  be  treated  in  any  way.  The  causes  are  to  be 
avoided.  As  it  is  riot  contagious  in  this  form,  except  through 
poisoning  by  the  dead  carcass,  it  is  easily  managed  after  the  first 
appearance  of  it  in  a  flocK. 

Exposure  to  sudden  changes  of  the  weather  is  to  be  avoided. 
Excessive  warmth,  suddenly  changing  to  cold  rain  and  winds, 
by  chilling  the  body,  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  causes.  Over- 
feeding on  rich  young  grass  or  luxuriant  green  crops,  too  sud- 
denly begun;  the  use  of  those  foods,  as  the  oil -cakes  which  are 
rich  in  protein,  and  thus  unusually  stimulating;  and  equally  the 


336  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

feeding  late  in  the  year  or  early  Spring  on  dead  innutritious  herb- 
age, are  all  to  be  avoided;  and  it  will  be  very  useful  at  those 
times  of  the  year  when  the  food  is  either  too  innutritious,  or  too 
rich  and  stimulating,  to  give  Epsom  salts  in  two  ounce  doses,  alter- 
nately Avith  chlorate  of  potash  in  thirty  grain  doses,  daily  for  three 
days.  The  chlorate  may  be  continued  after  this  by  itself  every 
second  day  for  a  week  with  advantage. 

ANASARCA— NAVEL  DISEASE  OF  LAMBS. 

This  disease  is  a  form  of  dropsy,  and  due  to  poisoning  of  the 
blood  by  any  sudden  check  to  the  secretions  of  the  skin  by  which 
injurious  matter  is  thrown  back  into  the  circulation.  In  its  mani- 
festations, it  somewhat  resembles  the  disease  described  under  the 
head  of  Anthrax,  or  Braxy,  but  differs  in  the  absence  of  any  inflam- 
matory condition  of  the  animal.  It  appears  in  the  form  of  swellings 
on  various  parts  of  the  body,  but  mostly  on  the  belly  and  about 
the  navel,  whence  its  common  name  among  English  shepherds, 
"navel  ill."  It  is  accompanied  by  great  prostration,  dull  and 
blood-shot  eyes  and  a  red  and  congested  mouth.  The  animal  lies 
and  pants,  and  has  no  inclination  to  move.  Generally  the  head 
is  thrown  back  on  the  shoulder.  The  characteristic  eymptom, 
however,  is  the  dropsical  condition  on  the  belly,  under  the  throat 
and  jaws,  where  the  swollen  parts  contain  a  yellow  fluid.  Finally 
the  limbs  swell,  the  nostrils  are  swollen  until  closed  and  breath- 
ing is  difficult.  The  scanty  urine  is  thick  and  brick-red  in  color 
and  has  a  strong  odor. 

The  causes  are  sudden  changes  of  the  weather;  exposure  to 
chilling  rains;  close  confinement  in  ill-ventilated  pens;  and  the 
prevalence  of  these  conditions  in  our  northern  climate  tends  to 
aggravate  the  tendency  to  this  disease  among  the  lambs. 

The  treatment  is  to  give  a  gentle  laxative,  as  two  ounces  of  raw 
linseed  oil,  after  which  one  teaspoonful  of  turpentine  may  be 
given  in  sweet  milk.  Ten  grain  doses  twice  daily  of  chlorate  of 
potash  are  useful.  The  swellings  should  be  bathed  with  slightly 
warm  solution  of  one  dram  of  carbolic  acid  in  a  quart  of  water. 
The  food  should  be  warm  oatmeal  gruel  sweetened  with  sugar. 
Small  doses  of  turpentine  are  given  to  stimulate  the  kidneys, 
at  intervals  of  three  hours.  This  increased  action  of  the  kidneys 
tends  to  reduce  the  dropsical  tendency  of  the  disease. 

BRONCHITIS— INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LARGE  AIR 
TUBES  IN  THE  LUNGS. 

This  disease  is  an  extension  downwards  of  a  common  sore 
throat,  or  nasal  catarrh.  It  is  a  frequent  result  of  exposure 
to  cold  rains  after  warm  weather.  It  is  also  caused  by  the  irrita- 
tion of  parasitic  worms  in  these  air  tubes,  when  it  is  called 
verminous,  or  wormy,  bronchitis.  It  has  two  forms,  one  is  mild 
and  soon  passes  off  under  naturally  improved  conditions  in  a  few 
days.  In  this  form  the  sheep  is  dull  and  stands  about  without  eat- 
ing, coughing  with  a  hard  sound,  but  soon  becoming  soft  and  rat- 
tling as  the  discharge  from  the  nose  becomes  copious.  In  such 


DISEASES  OF   SHEEP.  337 

cases  the  sheep  recover  without  any  special  treatment  beyond  a 
warm  linseed  mash  given  a  few  times.  In  severe  cases  the  sheep 
loses  appetite,  the  mouth  is  hot  and  dry,  the  head  is  hot,  and  the 
muzzle  is  dry  and  turned  up  at  the  corners,  as.  is  seen  especially 
in  sheep  when  seriously  diseased  and  suffering.  The  cough  soon 
becomes  hard,  dry,  and  like  barking  of  a  dog.  The  sick  animal 
hangs  its  head  and  seems  to  be  drowsy,  or  lies  with  the  head  on 
its  flank,  as  if  asleep. 

The  treatment  should  be  to  give  five  drops  of  tincture  of 
aconite  for  a  full  grown  sheep,  half  as  much  to  a  yearling,  three 
times  in  a  day.  The  sheep  should  be  kept  in  a  shaded,  clean,  airy 
building,  and  given  warm  linseed  gruel,  or  sloppy  bran  mashes. 
Four  drams  of  sweet  spirits  of  niter  have  been  found  useful,  given 
every  three  or  four  hours.  When  a  white  discharge  from  the  nose 
occurs,  and  the  heat  of  the  body  subsides,  the  tonic  mixture 
should  be  given  twice  daily,  until  the  appetite  returns;  when 
soft  mashes  and  the  best  clover  hay  with  a  few  sliced  roots  will 
be  advisable  for  the  food.  Overfeeding  is  to  be  avoided,  and  mod- 
erate quantities  only  of  the  best  kinds  are  to  be  fed.  The  drink 
may  be  thin  gruel  with  a  little  salt  added. 

CARBUNCULAR  ERYSIPELAS. 

This  disease  much  resembles  anthrax,  and  frequently  goes  by 
one  of  its  common  names  as  black  leg,  or  black  quarter.  It  dif- 
fers, however,  in  some  important  points,  especially  in  its  conta- 
gious character  and  its  communicability  to  mankind.  It,  as  also 
does  that  form  of  anthrax  already  described,  attacks  the  finest 
lambs  in  the  flock,  and  these  die  suddenly  without  notice  of  the 
shepherd.  A  few  hours  is  the  common  time  in  which  death  hap- 
pens, but  some  patients  linger  for  two  days.  The  first  symptom  is 
lameness  in  one  leg,  fore  or  hind.  If  the  animal  is  examined 
the  limb  on  this  quarter  will  be  found  swollen,  and  red,  and  in- 
flamed. On  pressure  of  the  flesh  the  crackling  sound  of  the  gas 
escaping  from  the  already  putrid  flesh,  and  gathered  in  the  tis- 
sues, is  heard.  Indeed  the  same  appearances  seen  in  anthrax  are 
conspicuous  in  this  disease,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  deadly 
contagiousness  of  this  disease,  which  is  often  communicated  to 
those  persons  who  may  handle  the  carcass  of  a  dead  sheep,  or  the 
wool  stripped  from  the  body  of  one.  This  is  the  deadly  disease 
known  as  the  wool-sorters'  disease,  which  infects  those  persons 
who  handle  the  wool  stripped  from  infected  carcasses. 

The  first  symptom  noticed  is  the  shivering  of  the  sick  sheep. 
The  blood  in  this  form  is  charged  with  uncountable  numbers 
of  deadly  germs,  to  which  the  malignantly  contagious  nature  of 
the  disease  is  due,  and  is  in  much  the  same  condition  as  in  an- 
thrax; thick,  tarry,  and  black.  Blackened  tumors  appear  on  the 
bare  parts  of  the  body  and  the  belly  is  distended  with  diffused 
serum,  which  surrounds  the  intestines,  and  in  places  escapes 
through  the  skin  as  a  yellow  liquid.  Breathing  is  heavy  and 
labored,  and  a  fetid  discharge  escapes  from  the  nose. 

Treatment  is  unavailing.    The  sick  animals  will  be  worthless 


338  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

if  they  should  recover,  which  sometimes  happens,  if  the  poison 
escapes  outwardly  by  effusion;  but  it  leaves  them  disabled,  and 
weak  and  useless  to  the  shepherd. 

As  the  disease  is  contagious  it  is  best  to  kill  and  bury  the  sick 
animal  immediately,  out  of  reach  of  dogs,  which  may  spread  the 
poison  by  dying  by  its  ^effects,  arid  leaving  their  dead  bodies  on 
the  range  or  pasture.  Then  preventive  measures  should  be  under- 
taken. Rich,  wet  pastures  should  be  drained;  overflowed  lands 
should  be  avoided;  pure  water  only  used  for  the  flock;  and  the 
rank  young  pastures  of  the  Spring  should  be  used  for  an  hour  or 
two  only  in  the  day  until  the  excessive  succulence  of  it  disappears. 
In  the  same  way  coarse,  innutritions  herbage  in  the  Fall  should 
be  avoided,  as  also  pasturing  on  sAvampy  lands,  at  that  time  of 
the  year. 

DIARRHEA-WHITE  SCOUR  OF  LAMBS. 

This  disease  is  rather  an  indication  of  a  malady  than  a  disease 
itself.  It  is  the  manifestation  of  a  condition  of  the  digestive 
organs  by  which  the  food  is  not  digested,  and  is  discharged  in  an 
offensive  condition,  which  is  the  result  of  the  irritation  it  exerts 
ori  the  bowels.  It  is  also  one  of  the  symptoms  of  disorder  of  the 
liver.  But  it  exists  mostly  as  the  effect  of  the  food  on  the  system. 
Inferior  and  indigestible  food,  as  well  as  those  kinds  that  are  too 
rich  in  one  special  element — unbalanced  it  is  termed — and  which 
are  thrown  off  in  this  abnormal  manner,  are  the  most  frequent 
causes. 

It  happens  also  as  a  result  of  parasites  in  the  intestines,  in- 
cluding the  liver  in  this  category.  Also  as  a  result  of  the  over 
rich  and  indigestible  character  of  the  milk  of  a  highly  fed  ewe.  In- 
deed in  the  ewes  any  injurious  element  of  the  food  or  diseased 
product  of  the  system  is  carried  off  by  the  milk,  and  thus  this 
scour  of  lambs  is  really  an  indication  of  something  wrong  with 
the  ewe.  It  is  also  a  symptom  of  several  special  diseases.  Thus, 
its  treatment  depends  on  a  full  acquaintance  with  the  special  cir- 
cumstances of  each  case.  The  symptoms  are  too  well  known  to 
need  repetition.  The  worst  cases  are  those  in  lambs  through 
whom  the  ewe's  milk  passes  almost  unchanged,  for  this  implies 
starvation,  and  an  early  death,  unless  the  disease  is  checked  imme- 
diately. 

In  this  case  the  ewe  is  to  be  treated,  for  it  is  the  milk  of  the 
ewes  which  irritates  the  bowels  of  the  lambs.  It  is  not  desirable 
to  give  astringent  medicines,  as  the  saying  is,  to  dry  up  the  in- 
valid. This  makes  matters  worse,  often.  A  soft,  emollient,  soot'h- 
ing  laxative  given  to  the  lamb,  to  act  on  the  inflamed  intestines, 
and  an  altreative  given  to  the  ewe  will  be  the  most  effective 
treatment.  Astringents  are  to  be  avoided.  Mild  healing  laxa- 
tives and  tonics  are  indicated,  such  as  the  following: 

Epsom  salt? 2  ounces. 

Carbonate  of  soda  3  drams. 

Ground  ginger 2  drams. 

Warm  thin  gruel Vz  a  pint. 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  339 

It  may  be  well  to  add  two  teaspoonfuls  of  whisky  to  this 
medicine,  given  twice  in  twenty-four  hours.  For  the  lamb  one-ha'f 
of  this  is  sufficient. 

A  cordial  mixture  as  the  following  is  excellent  for  a  ewe,  if 
none  of  those  ready  prepared  are  on  hand: 

Tincture  of  rhubarb 1  ounce. 

'i  iuciure  of  caruoruoms 1  ounce. 

Carbonate  of  soda 1  dram. 

Hot  water  or  gruel 2  ounces. 

Add  one  teaspoonful  of  glycerine. 

CATARRH-SIMPLE  AND  MALIGNANT. 

No  other  animal  is  so  subject  to  inflammation  of  the  nasal  mem- 
branes and  those  of  the  throat  and  bronchial  tubes,  as  the  sheep. 
The  discharge  from  the  nose  prevails  in  every  flock  more  or  less, 
and  while  it  is  a  symptom  of  several  diseases,  yet  it  is  a  special 
disorder  of  the  mucous  membranes,  which  at  times  is  serious, 
as  leading  to  more  troublesome  disorders. 

Simple  catarrh  appears  as  a  inore  or  less  copious  discharge 
from  the  nostrils,  which  are  inflamed,  either  as  a  result  of  a  cold 
due  to  exposure  to  rains  or  chilling  winds,  or  from  any  inflamma- 
tory state  of  the  system.  It  is  often  a  prelude  to  inflammation 
of  the  lungs  or  influenza,  and  unless  treated  without  delay  it  is 
apt  to  lead  to  these  more  troublesome  disorders.  It  is  therefore 
wise  to  take  immediate  measures  to  put  a  stop  to  it  while  it  is 
easy  to  do  so. 

The  symptoms  are  sneezing,  redness  of  the  eyes,  and  weeping; 
at  first  the  nose  is  dry  and  rather  hot,  but  soon  a  thin,  watery 
fluid  escapes,  which  gradually  becomes  thick  and  adherent,  form- 
ing scales  on  the  edges  of  the  nasal  passages..  This  later  discharge 
is  yellowish  white  and  has  a  purulent  appearance. 

The  treatment  is  as  follows:  In  ordinary  and  mild  cases 
shelter  in  a  dry,  clean,  airy  shed  with  a  few  meals  of  warm  bran 
and  linseed  mash,  for  a  few  days,  together  with  the  application 
of  this  powder  blown  into  the  nostrils  several  times  a  day  will 
usually  afford  complete  relief:  Take  equal  parts  of  finely  pow- 
dered sub-nitrate  of  bismuth,  and  gum  Arabic,  and  mix  them. 
As  much  of  this  powder  as  will  lie  on  a  dime  is  blown  into  the 
nostrils  twice  a  day  through  a  quill.  Also  give  the  tonic  mixture 
in  the  mash  mentioned. 

If  neglected  this  disorder  may  be  apt  to  result  in  the  epi- 
zootic form,  which  is  much  more  serious.  This  disease  consists 
of  a  purulent  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  nasal 
passages,  and  throat,  sometimes  passing  into  the  stomach  and 
bowels,  ending  in  inflammation  of  these  organs.  If  the  cause  of 
this  disease  is  known,  it  is"  under  only  the  most  certain  circum- 
stances, for  it  is  apt  to  occur  in  the  best  regulated  flocks  under 
certain  conditions  of  the  weather.  It  is  certain  that  its  extensive 
appearance  is  due  to  some  prevailing  general  sudden  change  from 
warm  to  cold,  or  the  reverse;  to  chilling  winds,  and  in  flocks  that 
are  unsheltered,  or  confined  in  ill-ventilated  barns;  whether  the 


840  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

ventilation  be  in  excess  or  insufficient  the  result  may  be  the 
same.  Mr.  Randall,  in  his  time,  alleged— doubtless  then  very 
truly— that  this  disorder  was  more  fatal  to  the  flocks  than  all 
other  maladies  combined.  But  we  have  improved  since  that  day 
in  our  general  better  care  of  the  sheep;  and  we  cannot  now  say 
that  this  disease  ever  destroys  forty  or  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
flocks,  as  in  Mr.  Randall's  time,  forty  years  ago. 

The  symptoms  are,  first,  a  thin,  watery,  acrid  discharge  from 
the  nostrils.  This  alone  is  sufficient  to  account  for  the  following 
inflammatory  developments;  for  this  discharge  soon  causes  severe 
soreness  of  the  skin,  leading  to  the  following  inflammation  which 
supervenes.  With  this  discharge  there  is  weeping  of  the  eyes, 
and  redness  and  evident  sorenesss.  The  animal  droops  and  is  dis- 
inclined to  move,  but  stands  listlessly  about,  neither  eating  nor 
drinking.  There  is  no  cough,  but  evident  increasing  weakness, 
while  the  discharge,  at  first  thin,  becomes  thick  and  glutinous, 
and  at  times  is  tinged  with  blood.  These  symptoms  increase 
in  severity  until  the  sheep  becomes  greatly  prostrated  and 
emaciated.  The  eyes  then  are  partly  closed  and  the  lids  adhere 
in  consequence  of  the  glutinous  discharge.  The  breathing  is 
labored  and  difficult.  Sheep  in  good  condition  are  not  disturbed 
as  to  the  action  of  the  bowels,  but  those  that  are  poor  suffer 
greatly  from  dysentery.  The  dung  is  mixed  with  blood  and  is 
voided  with  much  pain.  In  ten  days  the  sufferer  dies.  After 
death  the  lining  membranes  of  the  nose  and  nasal  cavities  of  the 
head  are  found  to  be  highly  inflamed  and  often  ulcerated. 

Treatment  is  always  unsatisfactory.  Either  the  patient  dies, 
or  slowly  recovers,  greatly  depressed;  and  next  to  worthless  for 
the  future.  The  most  satisfactory  treatment  consists  of  giving 
concentrated  food  of  the  most  nourishing  and  easily  digestible 
kinds;  such  as  gruels,  mashes,  and  thin  mucilaginous  drinks, 
with  the  tonic  mixture  added  in  the  proportions  given.  No  bleed- 
ing, or  weakening  purgatives,  are  to  be  used.  Dry  and  warm, 
but  unchanging  temperature  is  indispensable.  To  maintain  the 
strength  of  the  patient  in  this  way  is  the  only  hopeful  treatment. 
Mr.  Randall  advises  the  following  medicine  which  he 
found  entirely  satisfactory  when  taken  in  the  early  stage  of  the 
disease : 

Corrosive  sublimate 8  grains. 

Rhubarb 1  ounce. 

Ground  ginger  and  gentian  each 2  ounces. 

Simmer  the  three  last  in  one  quart  of  water,  for  fifteen  min- 
utes; strain  and  add  the  first.  Give  two  tablespoonfuls  twice  a 
day.  The  experience  of  the  author  has  been  t^at  the  most  careful 
nursing  to  sustain  the  strength  is  the  most  effective,  with  the  use 
of  the  tonic  mixture. 

COLIC  OR  BELLY  ACHE. 

This  disease  is  due  to  the  fermentation  of  food  in  the  stom- 
ach. It  exists  in  the  first  stomach,  the  rumen.  It  is  akin  to  the 
well  known  bloating  of  cattle.  It  is  due  to  the  over  eating  of  sue- 


DISEASES  OF   SHEEP.  341 

culent  green  fodder,  especially  when  it  is  wet  or  covered  with 
frost.  Musty  dry  food  is  another  frequent  cause  of  it.  Sometimes 
it  occurs  through  a  constitutional  or  accidental  difficulty  of  diges- 
tion. 

The  symptoms  are  a  swelling  of  the  belly  on  the  left  side, 
occurring  soon  after  eating.  The  breathing  is  oppressed  by  reason 
of  the  pressure  of  the  distended  stomach  on  the  lungs.  The  bowels 
are  inactive  and  the  eyes  have  a  wild  expression,  due  to  the 
severe  pain,  and  the  sheep  moans  at  every  movement. 

The  only  effective  treatment  is  to  relieve  the  pressure  on  the 
stomach  by  puncturing  the  wall  of  it  with  t~e  trochar,  thus  let- 
ting the  accumulated  gas  escape.  If  it  is  possible  for  the  animal 
to  swallow,  a  dose  of  one-half  ounce  of  carbonate  of  ammonia 
will  afford  relief  in  cases  when  the  trochar  is  not  at  hand. 
But  it  is  quite  safe  to  puncture  the  stomach  on  the  left  side 
at  a  point  at  the  center  of  a  triangle  of  equal  sides  about  four 
inches  each  way  from  the  hip  bone,  in  a  line  below  the  kidneys, 
and  to  a  point  below  it  where  the  sides  of  the  triangle  will  meet. 
A  small  pen  knife  will  be  a  safe  instrument  to  use.  A  quill  tied 
around  with  a  cord  at  one  end,  to  prevent  it  from  slipping  in 
the  wound,  is  inserted  to  keep  the  wound  open  while  the  gas  is 
escaping. 

Relief  is  often  found  in  the  use  of  the  following  medicine 
given  by  the  mouth: 

Ground  mustard y<,  teaspoonf  ul. 

Whisky 1  ounce. 

Mix  and  give  in  a  small  quantity  of  warm  water.  Repeat 
when  needed. 

FOOT  ROT. 

This  disease  of  the  sheep's  foot  is  mostly  prevalent  on  wet, 
marshy  lands,  by  which  the  horn  of  the  foot  is  softened  and  the 
skin  between  the  toes  is  chafed  and  worn,  until  the  lamina  of  the 
foot — which  connect  the  horn  to  the  fleshy  interior  and  the 
vascular  sensitive  tissue,  through  which  the  veins  and  arteries 
run — become  inflamed,  and  exude  purulent  matter.  These  lamina 
being  inoculated  with  fungoid  germs  existing  in  the  infected  soil, 
are  decomposed  by  the  action  of  these  germs,  and  the  interior  of 
the  foot  rots  away;  after  which  the  horn  separates  and  decays. 
The  decaying  horn  produces  a  peculiar  fetid  odor  by  which  this 
disease  may  be  recognized  at  some  distance  from  where  a  diseased 
flock  is  pasturing. 

The  sheep's  foot  is  provided  with  a  self-lubricating  apparatus 
placed  in  the  cleft  of  the  hoof,  known  as  the  interungulate  gland; 
and  a  canal  which  leads  from  it  to  the  outer  surface  between  the 
toes.  This  gland  secrets  a  lubricating  fluid  which  softens  the 
skin,  and  prevents  chafing.  It  is  readily  perceived  how  the  stop- 
page of  this  canal  should  induce  chafing  by  the  grinding  action 
of  the  wet  mud,  or  sand  and  gravel,  on  this  soft  skin  between  the 
toes.  And  equally  how  soon  the  inner  parts  of  the  foot  may 
become  raw  and  inflamed,  and  offer  the  most  favorable  oppor- 


342 


THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 


tunity  for  infection  by  the  special  germ  existing  in  the  decaying 
soil.  This  is  the  history  of  this  disease  which  is  exceedingly 
troublesome  once  it  makes  a  start  on  a  pasture  and  in  a  flock. 

Prevention  is  obvious.  Drain  wet  pastures.  Avoid  feeding 
sheep  on  wet,  muddy  lands.  And  carefully  inspect  the  feet,  at 
short  intervals,  paring  the  under  curved  walls  which  turn  under 


FIG.  23.— Early  Stage  of  Foot-Rot.          FIG.  24.— Advanced  Foot-Rot. 

the  sole,  and  gather  the  offending  matter.  When  the  disease 
occurs,  carefully  dress  the  sores  with  any  prepared  hoof  ointment, 
after  washing  them  in  a  solution  of  one  pound  of  sulphate  of  cop- 
per in  5  gallons  of  water,  and  in  the  same  proportion  as  one 
ounce  to  1^  quarts  of  water.  An  excellent  ointment  for  the  feet  so 
diseased  is  made  in  this  way:  Melt  four  parts  of  Burgundy  pitch, 
add  one  part  of  vaseline,  one  part  of  turpentine,  and  one  part  of 
acetate  of  copper  finely  powdered,  and  stir  until  cool.  Apply  this 
to  the  pores.  Keep  the  sheep  on  clean  pasture  until  recovery. 

It  will  be  obvious  that  this  treatment  is  wholly  inadmissible 
in  large  flocks.  Some  more  convenient  method  is  used  in  these 
cases.  A  suitable  arrangement  is  made  by  which  the  flock  may 
be  passed  through  the  curative  antiseptic  preparation  placed  in  a 
trough  of  suitable  size,  in  much  the  same  manner  in  which  sheep 
are  dipped  as  a  preventive  and  cure  for  the  scab,  as  will  be  de- 
scribed hereafter  under  the  appropriate  heading.  The  trough  should 
have  sufficient  length  to  thoroughly  introduce  the  disinfecting 
liquid,  which  is  two  inches  deep  in  the  trough.  The  flock  is  first 
driven  up  or  down  a  stream  of  clear  water,  or  the  feet  are  pre- 
pared by  paring  off  the  diseased  horn  so  that  the  disinfecting 
fluid  may  penetrate  to  every  part  of  the  feet.  This  operation  is 
most  conveniently  performed  at  the  shearing  time,  and  is  then  in- 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  343 

dispensable  for  safety  if  the  least  evidence  of  the  disease  is  noticed 
in  the  flock.  And  as  each  sheep  is  shorn  it  is  immediately  passed 
through  the  disinfecting  liquid  in  the  manner  mentioned.  Indeed 
this  is  the  time  when  the  sheep  should  be  dipped  for  the  scab 
disease,  and  all  three  operations  are  thus  easily  and  cheaply  per- 
formed by  any  suitable  arrangement  by  which  the  flocks  may  be 
passed  through  each  in  succession. 

As  this  disease  is  extremely  virulent,  a  close  watch  should  be 
kept  for  its  appearance,  and  any  sheep  going  on  its  knees  should 
be  immediately  caught  and  operated  on.  Prevention,  as  in  the 
equally  serious  disorder  of  the  scab,  is  imperative,  as  the  cheapest 
and  only  practicable  means  of  avoiding  enormous  trouble  in  a 
large  flock  of  sheep.  It  is  also  a  wise  precaution  to  closely  exam- 
ine the  feet  of  any  purchased  sheep,  especially  those  which  have 
been  transported  on  the  railroads,  in  the  common  sheep  cars, 
before  they  are  turned  out  into  a  flock.  There  is  no  more  danger- 
ous possibility  of  infection  than  this,  and  as  to  be  safe  is  better 
than  to  be  sorry,  the  importance  of  this  precaution  cannot  be 
overestimated. 

There  are-  several  kinds  of  preparations  in  use  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  the  sulphate  of  copper  solution  is  ganerally  esteemed 
to  be  the  most  effective.  This  may  be  prepared  as  follows:  Five 
pounds  of  the  sulphate  of  copper  are  dissolved  in  five  gallons  of 
water,  six  pounds  of  fresh  lime  are  slaked  in  four  gallons  of  water, 
the  two  liquids  are  strained  into  a  cask  and  diluted  to  twenty 
gallons.  This  is  not  so  caustic  as  the  sulphate  alone,  but  is 
equally  effective. 

IMPACTION  OF  THE  STOMACH. 

Sheep  are  not  so  subject  to  this  disease  as  cattle  are,  but  at 
times  they  will  overgorge  themselves,  as  on  fresh  clover,  covered 
with  early  frost,  and  by  the  chilling  of  the  stomach  digestion 
is  prevented  and  fermentation  occurs.  This  causes  a  large  quan- 
tity of  carbonic  acid  gas  to  form  in  the  stomach  and  the  pres- 
sure of  it,  closing  the  openings  of  the  stomach  at  both  its  ex- 
tremities, great  suffering  ensues.  This  occurrence  obviously  inter- 
feres with  the  giving  of  any  relief  by  medicine,  and  the  only 
recourse  is  to  an  operation  by  which  the  stomach  is  pierced  and 
the  collected  gas  is  let  out.  The  right  spot  for  this  opening 
is  at  the  center  of  a  triangle  the  base  of  which  is  about  four 
inches  long  in  a  sheep,  and  runs  along  the  body  sufficiently  low 
to  avoid  the  kidneys,  and  the  other  two  sides  meet  at  a  point 
directly  below  the  middle  of  the  base.  The  puncture  is  made 
by  means  of  a  sharp-pointed  instrument  called  a  trochar,  fitting  in 
a  tube  called  a  canula.  The  part  of  the  body  indicated  is  pierced 
with  this  instrument,  which  is  then  drawn  out  leaving  the  canuTa 
or  tube  in  the  opening.  The  gas  thus  escapes,  and  the  needed 
medicine  is  poured  into  the  stomach  (the  rumen)  through  the 
tube,  which  is  furnished  with  a  cup-like  top  for  this  purpose. 
This  medicine  consists  of  one  dram  of  aromatic  spirits  of  am- 
monia, followed  in  one  hour  by  two  ounces  of  raw  linseed  oil. 


344  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

After  recovery,  careful  feeding  is  necessary,  the  tonic  mixture 
previously  mentioned  at  the  outset  of  this  chapter  being  given 
The  wound  made  heals  quickly,  but  it  is  well  to  shave  off  the 
hair  and  apply  a  tar  plaster  over  it  and  keep  it  on  for  a  few 
days. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BRAIN. 

Of  this  serious  disease  there  are  two  forms.  One  is  inflamma- 
tion of  the  covering  membrane  of  the  brain—the  meninges— 
(whence  the  common  name  of  this  disease  meningitis),  and  the 
other  is  inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the  brain  itself.  There 
is  a  special  difference  between  these  two  forms  of  the  disease. 
The  former  is  characterized  by  more  violent  symptoms  as  delirium, 
violent  movements,  pawing,  champing  of  the  mouth,  and  general 
convulsions.  In  the  latter  the  animal  is  dull  and  stupid,  and  in- 
able  to  move  the  limbs.  In  both  cases  there  is  trembling  of  the 
body,  high  temperature,  increased  and  hard  pulse,  quick  breath- 
ing, red  eyes,  glaring  as  by  nervous  excitement.  The  sick  animal 
bores  its  head  against  some  obstacle,  or  lies  on  the  haunches,  or 
rests  against  any  support  that  may  be  'convenient-.  The  sheep 
bleats  during  the  period  of  excitement,  at  other  times  resting 
in  a  condition  of  stupor.  The  causes  are  mostly  sudden  and  seri- 
ous changes  of  temperature;  exposure  to  severe  weather,  heat  or 
cold  equally;  over  exertion;  indigestion  of  some  standing,  or  sud- 
den over-loading  of  the  stomach  with  rich  food.  Feeding  on 
smutty  or  ergotted  grain  or  fodder  produces  this  disease  by  the 
effect  of  the  special  poisonous  principle  known  as  ergotine,  which 
has  an  injurious  effect  on  the  nervous  system  in  this  way. 

The  treatment  consists  of  the  application  of  ice-cold  water 
to  the  head  and  neck;  injections  of  turpentine,  two  drams  of  it 
mixed  with  sweet  oil,  also  a  strong  purgative,  as  four  ounces  of 
Epsom  salts,  with  six  drops  of  croton  oil  added  to  the  solution, 
and  shaken  up  with  it.  This  is  followed  in  a  few  hours  by  half 
dram  doses  of  bromide  of  potassium  given  every  three  hours. 
The  patient  is  kept  in  an  airy  stable  free  from  all  disturbance, 
as  this  leads  to  renewed  excitement.  This  treatment  applies  to 
both  forms  of  the  disease.  After  recovery  the  patient  is  to  be 
well  fed,  but  with  only  the  most  easily  digestible  food,  given  in 
small  quantities,  at  short  intervals  until  full  recovery. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  SPINAL  CORD— MYELITIS. 

This  disease  also  has  two  forms,  the  ordinary  sporadic  kind, 
which  is  due  to  distinct  and  special  local  causes;  and  the  enzootic 
form,  which  at  times  prevails  extensively  over  a  large  terri- 
toiy,  being  due  to  causes  which  are  generally  prevalent.  It  is 
known  as  myelitis,  and  consists  of  inflammation  of  the  covering 
of  the  great  nerve  known  as  the  spinal  cord,  this  outer  covering 
being  known  as  is  that  of  the  brain,  as  meninges;  whence  is  de- 
rived the  full  name  of  the  disease — spinal  meningitis. 

It  also  goes  by  the  name  of  myelitis,  and  is  extremely  fre- 
quent in  certain  localities  in  which  some  special  conditions  exist 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  345 

that  are  not  well  understood,  but  are  believed  to  consist  of  some 
unfavorable  qualities  of  the  water  and  the  herbage.  It  is  known 
by  English  and  Scotch  shepherds  as  the  louping  ill,  or  hydro- 
rachitis;  from  which  is  derived  the  common  term  rickets-  applied 
to  young  animals  affected  by  weakness  of  the  hind  limbs  See 
fig.  25. 

The  common  form  is  similar  to  inflammation  of  the  brain 
in  its  etfects  on  the  animal,  and  similar  symptoms  are  perceived 
These  are  paroxysms  of  convulsed  movements;  a  high  temper- 
turea;  a  rapid  pulse  and  breathing.  These  finally  end  in  paralysis 

of  the  hind  parts,  so  tiiat  the 
young  animals,  which  are  mostly 
subject  to  this  disorder,  drag  their 
hind  limbs  along  without  ability 
to  move  them.  There  is  a  great 
tenderness,  along  the  spine,  and 
the  animal  shrinks  when  the 
spine  is  pressed.  If  the  patient 
is  able  to  stand  is  is  only  in  a 
staggering  way,  and  it  rests  its 
FIG.  23.— Myelitis.  head  against  any  support  within 

reach. 

These  symptoms  are  greatly  increased  in  the  enzootic  form. 
Lambs  are  frequently  born  diseased,  and  are  paralyzed  from  their 
birth.  Others  are  attacked  later,  and  after  a  time  up  to  a  year 
and  a  half  old.  The  old  sheep  are  rarely  subject  to  the  disease. 
The  lamb  in  some  instances  has  the  head  and  neck  drawn  to  one 
side,  others  exhibit  spasmodic  movements  by  which  they  seem  to 
be  endeavoring  to  leap,  using,  however,  only  their  forelegs.  From 
this  symptom  the  local  name  of  louping  or  leaping  ill  or  disease  is 
given.  Hut  mostly  the  lamb  lies  half  reclining  on  the  ground  and 
drags  its  hind  parts  along  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  fig.  25. 

The' causes  seem  to  include  among  others  generally  applicable 
to  this  class  of  diseases,  a  certain  distinct  unwholesome  quality 
in  the  herbage,  thought  to  be  due  to  the  geological  character  of 
the  soil,  by  which  excessive  succulence  is  given  to  it,  leading 
to  chronic  indigestion  and  mal-nutrition.  This  is  believed  to  be 
the  case,  for  the  reason  that  the  disease  may  prevail  extensively 
and  severely  in  some  locality  which  may  be  distinctly  separated 
from  adjoining  lands  of  a  different  geological  origin.  It  is  well 
known  that  a  limestone  soil  is  productive  of  increased  fertility 
and  luxuriance  of  the  pastures,  or  of  grown  feeding  crops,  and  we 
know  that  any  seriously  unbalanced  character  of  the  food  does 
affect  the  nervous  system  more  or  less  disastrously. 

This  is  all  the  more  to  be  considered  as  being  well  founded, 
although  we  have  no  satisfactory  certainty  of  it,  by  the  special 
accompanying  symptoms  which  are  noticed  at  the  outset  of  the 
disease.  As  for  instance,  there  is  a  depraved  appetite,  and  a  vora- 
cious desire  for  coarse  innutritions  food;  and  stones,  sand,  de- 
composed matters,  rotten  wood,  and  such  like  substances  are 
greedily  devoured  and  swallowed.  The  grass  is  not  bitten, 


346  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

but  torn  eagerly  from  the  ground,  and  the  roots  with  adhering 
soil  is  swallowed  with  avidity.  But  when  the  disease  is  ad- 
vanced, appetite  fails;  the  eyes  stare  wildly;  the  temperature  is 
lower  than  that  of  a  healthy  animal,  pointing  to  want  of  sup- 
port to  the  vital  functions;  and  this  reacting  on  the  brain  and  the 
principal  nerve  proceeding  from  it,  produces  all  the  symptoms 
^  hich  mark  this  disease. 

This  being  the  case,  the  treatment  calls  for  prevention  rather 
than  curative  measures.  The  causes  mentioned  are  to  be  avoided, 
and  the  ewes  must  be  duly  nourished  with  the  best  and  most 
digestible  food  before  the  lambs  are  about  to  be  dropped;  indeed 
from  the  period  of  conception.  This  is  to  be  thought  of  in  all 
these  localities  where  the  disease  has  prevailed  previously;  and 
with  the  drainage  of  wet  pastures,  and  the  dressing  of  the  lands 
under  feeding  crops  with  rich  stimulating  manures,  changed  for 
the  use  of  such  special  fertilizers  as  will  tend  to  the  growth  of 
wholesome  feed.  Superphosphate  of  lime  is  especially  useful  in 
this  respect,  and  a  dressing  of  the  feeding  crops  or  pastures  with 
salt  has  been  found  useful  in  clearing  the  land  of  this  tendency 
to  this  disease. 

Treatment  in  all  cases  calls  for  the  use  of  nerve  sedatives 
as  well  as  cooling  laxatives.  Epsom  salts  are  to  be  given  in  full 
doses,  one  to  two  ounces  for  a  lamb,  and  twice  as  much  for  a  ewe. 
Turpentine  in  two  dram  doses  acts  favorably  o-n  the  kidneys,  and 
as  an  anti-spasmodic.  After  these  'have  been  given,  bromide  of  po- 
tassium is  to  be  given  in  one  dram  doses  for  a  yearling,  and  less 
in  proportion  for  a  lamb  as  its  age  may  call  for.  Good  nursing 
is  efficacious  in  support  of  the  weakened  system,  and  after  recov- 
ery the  tonic  mixture  will  be  useful  in  aiding  digestion,  and  the 
due  assimilation  of  the  food. 

PLEURISY-INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LINING 
MEMBRANE  OF  THE  CHEST. 

This  disease  is  most  common  in  cold,  windy,  exposed  locali- 
ties, and  chiefly  among  flocks  on  the  range  and  without  shelter. 
It  frequently  accompanies  an  attack  of  rheumatism  in  which 
the  joints  are  involved,  and  severe  lameness  is  the  prevailing 
symptom. 

The  symptoms  are  shivering,  uneasy  movements,  pawing  the 
ground,  turning  the  head  to  the  flank,  general  uneasiness— the 
sheep  lying  down  and  rising  alternately  with  frequent  intermis- 
sion. The  pulse  is  rapid  and  the  breathing  hurried,  with  short 
inspirations  suddenly  checked,  while  the  inspiration  is  slow  and 
prolonged.  At  every  breath  the  abdomen  moves  and  the  head  is 
held  down,  the  eyes  are  half  closed,  and  a  hacking  cough  occurs. 
.  Appetite  and  rumination  are  both  suspended  and  the  nose  is  dry. 
Lameness  and  stiffness  of  the  ioints  due  to  the  accompanying 
rheumatism  are  prominent.  This  disease  terminates  in  hydro- 
thorax,  or  the  effusion  of  serum  in  the  chest.  These  symptoms 
continue  for  about  four  or  five  days,  when  they  gradually  change 
to  those  resulting  from  the  accumulated  serum  in  the  chest 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.          .  347 

Then  the  belly  becomes  swollen,  and  a  peculiar  drawing  in  of  the 
nostrils  occurs.  In  this  condition  of  the  disease  the  manner  of 
breathing  is  reversed;  the  inspirations  being  long  and  irregular, 
while  the  expiration  is  checked  and  occurs  with  difficulty.  The 
animal  now  stands  with  legs  wide  apart,  the  head  is  extended, 
and  the  neck  is  held  low;  the  eyes  are  staring;  the  pulse  is  im- 
perceptible; the  limbs,  nose  and  ears  are  cold;  a  rattling  sound 
accompanies  the  breathing;  the  animal  totters  and  falls  back- 
wards, if  the  head  is  raised,  but  headlong  otherwise,  and  dies 
.struggling. 

On  opening  the  body  the  chest  is  found  filled  with  serum, 
the  substance  of  the  lungs  is  hard  and  red,  and  the  tissue  is 
dull  in  color  and  sinks  in  water. 

The  treatment  to  be  taken  as  soon  as  the  rattling  sound  is 
heard  in  the  breathing,  is  to  give  the  following: 

Saltpetre 1  dram. 

Camphor yz  dram. 

Nitric  ether ys  ounce. 

Dissolve  the  camphor  in  the  ether,  and  add  half  a  pint  of 
oatmeal  gruel  strained.  Then  powder  the  saltpeter,  and  add  it 
to  the  gruel.  The  chest  should  be  well  rubbed  with  mustard 
made  into  a  thin  paste  with  hot  water,  and  a  skin  saturated 
with  hot  water  should  be  tied  around  the  body  immediately  back 
of  the  fore  legs.  When  the  presence  of  the  serum  in  the  cavity 
of  the  chest  is  certainly  known  by  the  occurrence  of  the  symptoms 
mentioned,  give  the  following  in  a  drench  of  warm  gruel: 

Powdered  digitalis 10  grains. 

Saltpeter 1  dram. 

N  itric  ether 2  drams. 

Mix;  add  to  the  gruel;  and  give  it  three  times  a  day. 

Two  drams  of  turpentine  are  given  alternately  with  the  above, 
all  of  which  should  be  continued  for  two  days.  As  soon  as  the 
kidneys  respond  to  this  treatment,  give  the  following: 

Sulphate  of  iron Vz  dram. 

Alum Vz  dram. 

Infusion  of  quassia 1  ounce. 

To  tap  the  chest  Avith  the  trochar  previously  described  and 
drawing  off  the  liquid  through  the  canula,  will  be  of  great  service. 
As  soon  as  recovery  has  begun  give  the  tonic  mixture. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  UDDER-MAMMITIS-GARGET. 

This  disease  is  frequent  in  well  fed  flocks,  and  among  ewes 
in  high  condition.  It  also  at  times  occurs  by  reason  of  the  excite- 
ment of  the  circulation  incident  to  the  birth  of  the  lamb,  leading 
to  inflammation  of  the  weakened  glands.  It  is  frequently  the 
case  that  the  first  milk  by  reason  of  its  glutinous  character  may 
close  the  duct  of  the  teats,  thus  producing  a.  congested  condition 
by  which  inflammation  is  caused.  Of  course  this  trouble  means 
the  death  of  the  newly  born  lamb  for  want  of  its  due  nourish- 
ment. 

It  is  a  disease  to  be  prevented  by  timely  attention,  for  an 


348  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

attack  of  inflammation  necessarily  means  stoppage  of  the  milk, 
and  if  for  only  a  short  time  the  lamb  is  starved,  or  much  labor 
is  thrown  on  the  shepherd.  And  this  occuring  at  the  busiest  time 
of  the  year  is  a  serious  disturbance  of  the  ordinary  routine  in  a 
flock  at  the  lambing  season. 

The  ewes  should  be  examined  as  soon  as  the  lamb  is  dropped 
and  the  condition  of  the  udder  and  the  teats  known.  It  is  a 
small  matter  as  compared  with  the  result,  which  is  not  only  the 
saving  of  a  lamb  but  the  welfare  or  future  value  of  the  ewe. 
For  once  the  udder  is  in  this  condition  of  inflammation,  it  is  an 
even  chance  if  the  ewe  can  be  restored  to  usefulness  for  the 
future.  There  is  no  danger  if  the  milk  will  appear  on  pressure 
of  the  teats.  If  not,  the  opening  of  each  teat  is  to  be  carefully 
cleaned  from  accumulated  gluey  matter  by  washing  with  warm 
water,  a.nd  the  insertion  of  the  point  of  a  small  syringe  by  which 
a  few  drops  of  warm  solution  of  saleratus  or  carbonate  of  soda 
may  be  injected.  This  dissolves  any  hardened  milk,  and  leaves 
a  free  course  for  the  milk  for  the  lamb  at  its  first  effort  to  suck. 
If  this  is  not  sufficient,  and  the  teat  appears  to  need  it,  a  smootli 
whalebone  probe,  well  oiled,  should  be  inserted  with  care  and 
gentleness  to  open  the  milk  duct.  If  the  udder  appears  to  be  at 
all  inflamed,  it  will  be  advisable  to  inject  a  little  more  of  the 
soda  solution,  adding  a  little  glycerine:  The  udder  should  be 
rubbed  gently  with  vaseline  to  which  is  added  one  fourth  part  of 
camphorated  spirit,  and  the  same  of  ammonia,  at  least  twice 
a  day. 

PNEUMONIA— INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LUNGS. 

This  disease  differs  from  pleurisy  in  being  seated  in  the  sub- 
nee  of  the  lungs.  The  difference  may  be  more  fully  explained 
in  this  way.  The  cavity  of  the  body  within  the  short  ribs,  is 
commonly  called  the  chest.  It  contains  the  lungs  and  the  heart, 
and  is  separated  from  the  abdomen  by  a  tough  strong  fibrous 
membrane  known  as  the  diaphragm.  This  is  elastic,  and  as  the 
lungs  are  inflated  by  the  inspiration  of  the  breath  it  gives  way, 
returning  to  its  original  position  on  the  expiration  of  the  breath- 
The  whole  interior  of  this  cavity  is  lined  Avith  a  serous  mem 
brane,  covering  the  walls  of  it  up  to  the  entrance  into  it  of  the 
wind  pipe  and  the  esophagus,  closing  these  in  into  the  space  of 
the  chest,  and  covering  them  as  well,  and  also  the  lungs.  This 
membrane  is  called  the  pleura,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  disease 
known  as  pleurisy.  This  membrane — the  pleura — is  in  fact  like 
a  sac  doubled  into  itself  and  enclosing  those  vital  organs  which 
are  seated  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest.  Inflammation  of  this  mem- 
brane is  called  pleurisy;  that  of  the  lungs  itself,  its  substance  in 
fact,  is  called  pneumonia.  This  disease  has  the  same  common 
cause  as  bronchitis  and  pleurisy;  but  it  is  more  common  than  these, 
and  has  greater  tendency  to  relapse  and  terminate  fatally  by  the 
hardening  and  solidifying  of  the  tissue,  so  that  expansion  neces- 
sary to  the  inflation  of  the  lungs  in  the  air  breathed,  and  the 
emptying  of  them  of  the  air  expired  by  contraction,  can  no 


DISEASES  OP   SHEEP.  349 

longer  go  on,  and  of  course  the  animal  dies  for  want  of  air  and 
the  purifying  of  the  blood  by  it,  as  is  explained  in  the  chapter 
devoted  to  the  anatomy  of  the  sheep. 

The  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  sufficiently  well  marked  to 
afford  certain  indications  of  its  existence  and  to  distinguish  it 
from  pleurisy.  They  are  dullness,  stiffness,  a  rough,  harsh  fleece, 
and  a  fit  of  severe  shivering.  The  skin  soon  becomes  dry,  hot 
and  shrunken  on  the  body;  the  eyes,  lips,  and  inside  of  the  ears 
are  red;  the  nostrils  are  drawn  in,  and  there  is  a  short  cough, 
suppressed  by  effort  to  avoid  the  severe  pain  caused  by  the  action 
of  the  lungs  thus  induced.  The  mouth  is  hot  and  clammy,  there 
is  a  sticky  discharge  from  the  nose,  the  head  is  protruded,  the 
breath  is  short  and  quick — 40  or  more  per  minute — while  the 
effort  to  breathe  is  made  by  the  muscles  of  the  abdomen  shown  by 
the  heaving  flanks.  The  pulse  is  rapid,  reaching  70  or  8J  per  min- 
ute. The  bowels  are  constipated;  urine  is  small  and  dark  in  color; 
the  sheep  is  averse  to  move  and  lies  still. 

On  placing  the  ear  to  the  side  of. the  chest  the  usual  move- 
ment of  the  breathing  is  absent  wherever  the  tissue  is  solidified, 
and  so  far  it  is  possible  to  trace  the  extent  of  the  disease.  When 
these  symptoms  lessen  in  degree  recovery  is  in  progress,  and  with 
good  care  the  imminent  relapse  may  be  avoided.  But  it  is  only 
by  the  best  care  that  this  happens,  when  the  disease  is  checked, 
and  convalescence  is  complete  in  about  fifteen  days.  Otherwise 
death  takes  place  from  the  fifth  to  the  twelfth  day. 

Treatment  is  the  same  as  for  bronchitis  (to  which  refer).  If 
the  bowels  are  constipated  two  ounces  of  Epsom  "salts  will  be 
useful:  It  is  best  given  dissolved  in  warm  oatmeal  gruel  or  lin- 
seed tea.  This  disease  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  epizootic 
and  contagious  form  of  pleuro-pneumonia,  a  disease  which  occa- 
sionly  attacks  sheep,  but  only  in  its  sporatic  form,  which  is  not 
contagious,  and  consists  of  both  pleurisy  and  pneumonia  combined. 
For  this  combined  disease  the  treatment  is  similar  to  that  indi- 
cated for  simple  pneumonia  or  for  pleurisy. 

HERPES-IXFLAMMATION    OF    THE    SKIN    WITH 
BLISTERS. 

This  inflammatory  condition  of  the  skin  is  accompanied  by 
small  vesicles,  or  blisters,  containing  serum.  These  may  burst 
and  thus  form  extended  sores,  the  exudation  from  which  mats 
the  fleece,  and  has  much  the  same  appearance  as  the  very  much 
more  serious  disease  known  as  the  scab.  It  is  indeed  frequently 
thought  to  be  this  di&Fn«e,  and  much  unnecessary  concern  may 
arise  in  consequence.  It  is  caused  by  over  stimulating  food, 
especially  over  rich  in  the  protein  elements,  such  as  cotton  seed 
meal,  or  the  linseed  oil  meals.  Exposure  to  continued  wet 
weather  after  shearing,  is  productive  of  this  condition  of  the  skin. 

The  treatment  is  to  give  four  ounces  of  Epsom  salts,  repeated 
the  second  day  after.  If  crusts  have  formed  these  may  be 
broken  and  removed  by  washing  with  warm  water  and  carbolic 
soap,  but  care  is  to  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  tender  skin  under 


350  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

these  crusts  so  as  to  cause  bleeding.  It  is  well  to  soak  the  scabs 
with  0:1  before  washing;  and  to  repeat  the  Avashing  until  the 
crusts  may  be  removed  without  leaving  a  sore.  If  the  skin  itches, 
so  that  the  sheep  bites  itself,  the  inflamed  patches  may  be  washed 
with  water  slightly  acidulated  by  sulphuric  acid;  a  few  drops  to 
^  quart  of  water  is  sufficient. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  PENIS. 

The  ram  is  subject  to  diseases  of  the  penis  which  may  easily 
destroy  its  value  for  service  in  the  flock.  These  are  first: 

Inflammation  of  this  organ  which  may  1)3  simple  or  cancerous. 
The  former  is  treated  by  a  few  doses  of  four  ounces  of  Epsom  salts 
and  injection  into  the  sheath  of  solution  of  chlorate  of  potash. 
This  may  be  injected  by  means  of  a  syringe  or  a  glass  tube  with 
a  rubber  cap  on  the  end  by  compression,  of  which  when  the  tube 
is  inserted  in  the  solution,  the  release  causes  the  fluid  to  be  drawn 
up,  and  pressure  on  the  cap  or  bulb,  of  course  ejects  the  fluid 
with  considerable  force.  It  may  be  well  before  applying  this 
solution  to  wash  the  passage  with  warm  water  with  a  few  drops 
of  carbolic  acid  in  it,  or  with  carbolic  soap  to  dissolve  and  remove 
the  coating  of  pus  on  the  diseased  parts.  If  the  disease  is  can- 
cerous the  animal  should  be  turned  on  its  back  and  the  organ 
withdrawn  and  the  diseased  spots  touched  with  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver.  This  destroys  the  fungous  growths  after  which  the 
chlorate  of  potash  solution  will  complete  the  cure. 

Sometimes  the  ram  by  hard  service  contracts  this  cancerous 
form  of  the  disease  which  he  communicates  to  the  ewes  and  these 
suffer  from  a  similar  inflammation  of  the  vaginal  passage.  This  is  to 
be  treated  in  a  similar  way  but  using  a  slender  elastic  rod  of  whale- 
bone with  a  soft  sponge  fastened  securely  to  one  end.  This  is 
dipped  into  the  solution  of  chlorate  of  potash  and  after  washing 
out  the  part  with  warm  water  and  carbolic  soap,  it  is  passed  into 
the  vaginal  passage  until  the  diseased  membrane  is  well  washed 
with  the  solution. 

PARTURITION  FEVER  IN  EWES. 

Ewes  are  sometimes  liable  to  a  serious  disease  of  the  blood, 
consequent  on  the  disturbance  of  the  circulation  due  to  the  sep- 
aration of  the  lamb  from  the  dam.  It  is  to  be  considered  that  in 
its  fetal  life  the  lamb  is  supplied  with  blood  for  its  life  and 
growth  from  the  dam.  After  birth  this  leaves  an  excess  of  blood 
to  circulate  in  the  ewe,  and  if  she  is  in  a  plethoric  condition  this 
increased  circulation  is  a  source  of  danger  to  her,  and  may  be 
productive  of  what  is  known  as  parturition  fever.  This  is  all 
the  more  likely  to  happen  with  full  fed  ewes,  especially  if  they 
are  on  a  rich  young  pasture. 

The  symptoms  occur  on  or  about  the  second  or  third  day  after 
the  birth  of  the  lamb.  They  consist  of  enlarged  flank;  a  staring 
wild  appearance  of  the  eyes;  constipation;  and  deficient  urine, 
which  has  a  deep  color  and  an  unusually  strong  sharp  odor. 
The  ewe  pants,  strains,  and  the  hind  parts  appear  inflamed, 
swollen  and  red,  and  are  hot  to  the  hand. 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  351 

Afterwards  they  become  deep  red,  then  purple,  and  finally 
black  in  color.  As  the  disease  advances,  unless  improvement 
occurs,  the  ewe  becomes  exhausted  and  dies  in  a  comatose  con- 
dition, due  to  the  excessive  pressure  of  blood  on  the  brain. 

The  womb  is  found  on  examination  to  be  inflamed,  patchy, 
and  even  gangrened,  and  black  and  decomposed.  The  whole 
system  is  congested  and  full  of  blood,  the  heart  especially  so. 
The  womb  is  highly  inflamed  and  the  veins  often  contain  pus 
instead  of  blood.  As  this  disease  is  apt  to  affect  other  ewes 
in  the  flock,  the  first  one  dead  should  be  examined  for  cer- 
tainty as  to  the  disorder,  so  that  preventive  measures  may  be 
taken  if  required  to  save  others.  These  are  to  give  a  copious 
laxative  (Epsom  salts)  to  the  ewe;  four  ounces  will  not  be  too 
much.  Following  this,  give  tincture  of  aconite  in  doses  of  five 
drops  repeated  every  six  hours.  Copious  bleeding  from  the  vein 
on  the  face  just  below  the  eye  is  useful  to  relieve  the  congestion. 
Injections  of  warm  soapy  water  are  desirable  to  relieve  the  bowels. 
After  these  remedies  are  used  for  24  hours  give  the  tonic  mixture 
in  warm  gruel  three  times  a  day. 

POISONING. 

A  sheep  is  a  foolish  animal,  and  is  as  apt  to  eat  injurious 
stuff  as  to  choose  good  food.  And  as  there  are  many  poisonous 
plants  that  sheep  come  in  the  way  of,  and  will  eat  readily,  cau- 
tion is  to  be  observed  to  destroy  them  or  keep  the  sheep  from 
them,  and  it  is  well  to  be  prepared  to  take  the  right  means,  and 
have  in  readiness  the  right  remedies,  to  prevent  losses  in  tnis  way. 
The  most  prevalent  and  deadly  plant  of  this  kind  is  that  member 
of  the  heath  family  known  as  the  narrow  leaved  kalmia  (Kalmia 
Angustifolia)  or  commonly  "sheeps  laurel,"  and  "lamb  kill." 
Indeed  there  are  several  plants  of  this  heath  family  that  are 
poisonous.  The  rhododendron  is  equally  virulent  with  the  laurels, 
of  which  the  broad-leaved  species  (Kalmia  latifolia)  is  a  danger- 
ous as  the  narrow  leaved  species.  Some  of  the  huckleberry 
tribe  are  fatal,  as  well  as  several  others.  Indeed  it  is  quite  prob- 
able that  all  this  family  of  plants  are  alike  in  this  respect.  The 
so-called  cow-parsnip  and  some  other  plants  of  the  Umbellifera 
family,  to  which  this  wild  parsnip  belongs,  are  even  more  deadly 
than  the  heaths.  Some  plants,  really  not  poisonous,  are  injurious, 
if  not  fatal,  in  their  effects,  not  on  account  of  any  poisonous 
character,  but  only  because  of  their  indigestibility.  Such  are  the 
leaves  of  the  mangel  or  field  beet,  when  grown  on  rich  soil;  the 
common  holyhock,  and  the  common  marsh  mallow;  so  with  oak 
leaves  and  acorns,  for  these  are  all  without  any  ill  effects  except- 
ing when  eaten  in  large  quantities;  and  the  symptoms  are  then  all 
those  of  acute  indigestion.  Acorns  and  other  mast  are  really 
valuable  food,  and  thousands  of  sheep  fatten  on  these  fruits  of 
forest  trees  late  in  the  year,  and  during  the  early  winter  months 
without  any  ill  effects  being  reserved. 

In  the  far  West,  and  as  far  as  California,  the  so-called  loco- 
weed  (Astragalus  mollismus)  also  known  as  crazyweed  and  some 


352  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

other  plants  are  poisonous  to  sheep,  as  well  as  other  animals, 
but  not  deadly  in  effect,  merely  producing  narcotic  results,  and 
acting  on  the  brain  to  produce  actual  temporary  insanity. 

The  worst  of  all  these  are  the  various  members  of  the  heath 
tribe  above  referred  to.  These  affect  the  brain  in  such  a  way  as 
to  cause  loss  of  sight,  inability  to  swallow,  and  consequent  pro- 


FIG.  26.— Loco  Weed. 

fuse  salivation.  Animals  dying  after  eating  largely  of  these 
leaves  and  twigs  are  found  to  have  the  brain  extensively  con- 
gested, the  heart  is  filled  with  venous  blood,  and  all  Jthe  symp- 
toms of  ordinary  apoplexy  are  seen.  The  author  in  an  experiment 
made  to  test  the  precise  action  of  the  leaves  of  the  narrow  laurel, 
eat  a  few  of  them.  In  a  few  minutes  considerable  nausea,  giddi- 
ness, clouded  vision  occurred;  the  eyes  being  at  times  unaffected 
by  light,  and  the  limbs  were  greatly  disturbed  and  stiff  in  their 
movements.  Strong  coffee  relieved  the  nervous  disorder  in  a 
short  time;  while  a  liberal  dose  of  castor  oil  relieved  the  stomach 
and  bowels.  This  treatment  has  been  effective  in  every  case  for 
the  sheep  when  taken  in  time,  and  since  then  there  has  not  been 
a  fatal  case  of  poisoning  where  this  treatment  has  been  adopted. 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  353 

From  the  nature  of  the  alkaloid  existing  in  the  crazyweed  of  the 
Western  plains,  it  is  we  think  beyond  question  that  this  same 
treatment  will  be  useful  as  an  antidote  to  the  effects  of  this 
weed. 

The  leaves  of  the  yew  tree  are  exceedingly  deadly  in  their 
effects,  and  while  we  have  none  of  this  kind  among  our  native 
trees,  yet  in  other  countries,  where  it  is  cultivated  or  grown  in 
hedges,  or  indeed  for  hedges,  sheep  should  not  be  permitted  to 
browse  on  them  or  eat  the  clippings  of  the  limbs. 

Cases  of  poisoning  sometimes  occur  by  giving  too  large  doses 
of  drugs,  the  action  of  which  is  virulent.  Thus  the  use  of  salt- 
peter (nitrate  of  potash  in  excess;  in  truth  it  is  rarely  called 
for)  is  apt  to  do  serious  injury.  So  aconite,  a  deadly  poison  in 
too  large  doses,  but  a  useful  remedy  in  many  diseases  as  a  seda- 
tive and  diaphoretic,  allaying  nervous  excitement  and  inducing 
perspiration,  may  be  given  to  excess,  carelessly,  on  account  of  the 
very  small  doses  required,  for  a  sheep,  no  more  than  3  to  5  drops. 
In  such  cases  immediate  ridding  to  the  system  of  the  poison,  by 
copious  liquid  purgatives,  is  the  simplest  means  of  avoiding  loss. 
After  recovery  the  tonic  mixture  should  be  used,  with  soft 
mashes  or  gruels  of  linseed  or  oatmeal,  or  both.  When  any 
poison  is  accidentally  taken  by  sheep  it  will  be  useful  to  drench 
the  animal  with  mucilaginous  liquid  by  which  the  stomach  may  be 
washed  out,  and  immediately  after  a  dose  of  castor  oil  or  raw  lin- 
seed oil  may  be  given  to  empty  the  stomach  and  bowels. 

PORCUPINE  GRASS. 

This  grass  is  quite  common  on  the  plains  and  has  been  found 
exceedingly  injurious  to  sheep.  It  is  a  tall  grass  with  a  bunch  of 
sharp  pointed,  speared  awns  in  the  head.  These  have  a  very 
peculiar  character.  They  are  twisted  when  dry  like  a  corkscrew 
and  as  they  become  damp  the  screw  unwinds,  becoming  more  sp'  -1! 
as  the  weather  dries  them  again.  The  sharp  points  penetrate  the 
wool  and  as  this  spiral  unwinds  and  winds  again  these  points  are 
literally  screwed  into  the  sheep's  skin,  penetrating  into  the  flesh 
and  even  passing  into  the  inside  where  of  course  these  spears 
do  serious  mischief,  frequently  killing  the  sheep  with  all  the  symp- 
toms of  a  slow,  wasting  disease,  which  is  rarely  recognized.  This 
of  course  calls  for  a  corresponding  watchfulness  on  the  part  of 
the  shepherd  to  keep  the  flocks  away  from  those  localities  where 
it  abounds.  When  the  grass  is  in  flower  it  is  much  like  an  ostrich 
feather  with  its  soft,  silky  plumes,  under  which  these  awns  are  to 
be  found. 

RED  WATER-HAEMATURIA. 

This  is  a  disease  distinctly  of  marshes  and  wood  lands,  of 
which  the  herbage  is  often  acrid  and  indigestible.  There  are 
certain  weeds  by  which  this  disorder  is  produced,  but  in  general, 
either  the  whole  herbage  is  innutritions  or  unwholesome,  or  the 
poiso>nous  emanations  from  the  sodden  soil  makes  the  blood  im- 
pure at  the  very  source— the  lungs— where  it  should  naturally  be 


354  THE    DOMESTIC  SHEEP. 

purified  and  vitalized.  It  also  has  one  of  its  causes  in  the  too 
succulent  and  innutritions  crops  grown  on  over-rich  damp  lands, 
and  turnips  especially  grown  on  soils  of  this  character — deep  black 
vegetable  soil — are  frequently  the  cause  of  attacks  of  this  disease 
of  flocks  fed  on  the  crops.  80  the  natural  growth  of  wood  land 
tends  to  encourage  this  disorder,  and  hence  it  is  commonly  known 
as  the  "woods  evil-"  The  disease  is  especially  virulent  in  the 
early  Spring  for  the  reason  that  the  sheep  are  hungry  for  fresh 
fodder,  and  eat  too  heartily  of  the  indigestible  or  too  laxative 
foods.  It  seems  in  its  manifestations  to  be  akin  to  the  common 
anthrax,  a  disease  often  due  to  similar  causes.  The  blood  is  dark, 
there  are  dullness,  weakness,  trembling,  cold  skin,  dry  mouth, 
loss  of  appetite,  thirst,  strong  action  of  the  heart;  the  bowels 
are  costive  after  a  period  of  looseness,  the  urine  is  passed  with 
suffering,  and  is  dark  colored.  This  color  is  not  due  to  the  mix- 
ture of  blood  but  to  failure  of  the  liver  to  act.  Unless  improve- 
ment occurs  in  a  few  days  the  animal  dies  in  a  condition  of  deli- 
rium and  severe  prostration. 

This  is  a  disease  to  be  prevented  by  avoiding  the  cause  of  it. 
By  keeping  the  sheep  off  from  the  over-grown  herbage  of  un- 
wholesome lands,  and  refraining  from  feeding,  even  hay  cut  on 
such  land.  The  drainage  of  the  wet  soil  will  remove  this  objec- 
tion to  it,  and  render  the  crops  harmless. 

Treatment  should  consist  of  the  use  of  active  purgatives; 
any  of  the  oils  are  preferable  in  this  case  to  saline  medicine. 
Olive  oil  is  the  best  and  most  effective,  after  this  raw  linseed  oil 
may  be  chosen.  A  quarter  of  a  pint  will  be  a  sufficient  dose  for 
a  full  grown  sheep.  It  should  be  repeated  in  six  hours  if  it  does 
not  operate  before  that  time.  Twenty  grain  doses  of  chlorate  of 
potash  may  be  given  in  gruel  three  times  a  day.^  The  standard 
tonic  mixture  should  then  be  given  twice  a  day.  The  food  should 
be  of  the  best  and  most  easily  digested  kinds.  Decoctions  of  lin- 
seed or  of  slippery  elm  bark;  bran  mashes,  and  boiled  oats,  will 
be  desirable. 

REDNESS  OF  THE  EYES— OPHTHALMIA. 

This  disease  should  be  treated  on  the  first  appearance  of  it 
qr  the  sight  may  easily  be  lost  beyond  recovery.  This  indeed  is 
not  of  much  account  in  a  sheep,  if  it  is  in  good  condition,  for  it 
will  always  make  mutton  unless  it  is  affected  by  some  wasting 
disease,  by  which  its  condition  is  impaired.  But  all  sheep  are 
not  necessarily  immediate  mutton,  and  a  valuable  breeding  animal 
is  not  to  be  considered  from  this  point  of  view.  Redness  of  the 
eyes  is  not  to  be  neglected.  Treatment  should  be  immediate. 
The  disease  is  also  apt  to  become  epidemic  in  the  flock,  for  the 
purulent  matter  flowing  from  a  diseased  eye  is  very  apt  to  con- 
vey the  infection  to  other  sheep. 

The  cause  of  the  disease  should  be  investigated.  There  may 
be  a  chaff  or  beard  or  some  minute  foreign  matter  causing  the 
trouble.  If  so  it  is  to  be  removed;  and  a  small  pinch  of  burned 
alum  blown  into  the  eye  through  a  quill  will  quickly  restore  the 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  355 

eye  to  comfort  and  use.  If  the  inflammation  has  been  severe 
two  ounces  of  Epsom  salts  should  be  given  in  gruel  and  the  animal 
kept  in  the  dark  for  a  few  days.  Frequent  bathing  of  the  eyes 
with  cold  water  with  a  small  pinch  of  sulphate  of  zinc  dissolved 
in  it.,  will  be  useful. 

SMALL  POX  OF  SHEEP-VARIOLA  OVINA. 

This  deadly'disease,  so  closely  akin  to  the  same  disease  of 
mankind  as  to  be  communicable  to  those  coming  in  contact  with 
diseased  sheep,  so  far  has  no>t  been  known  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  But  in  the  importation  of  sheep  for  breeding 
from  European  countries,  where  it  exists  to  a  dangerous  extent, 
it  is  always  liable  to  be  introduced  into  our  flocks.  A  description 
of  the  disease  is  therefore  of  interest.  It  is  only  known  as  a 
virulently  contagious  disease,  having  a  period  of  incubation  of  four 
or  five  days  in  Summer,  and  ten  to  fifteen  in  the  Winter. 

The  symptoms  are  loss  of  appetite,  dullness,  isolation  of  the 
sick  sheep,  and  stiffness  of  the  hind  part  of  the  body.  Trembling 
follows;  the  bowels  become  costive;  the  eyes  are  red  and  weep 
copiously;  a  discharge  comes  from  the  nose;  and  the  naked  parts 
of  the  body  have  red  patches.  These  may  appear  on  the  belly 
or  inside  the  legs.  If  they  become  united — confluent — the  result 
will  likely  be  serious.  Otherwise  the  disease  passes  through  the 
usual  stages  as  in  cow-pox;  that  is  the  eruption  exudes  a  lymph 
which  in  a  short  time  becomes  purulent,  then  dries,  and  forms 
crusts  which  loosen  and  fall  off,  at  the  end  of  three  weeks  or  a 
month.  In  this  mild  form  the  loss  of  life  may  not  be  over  five 
to  seven  per  cent,  but  when  the  disease  takes  on  its  virulent 
form  it  destroys  at  times  almost  the  whole  flock.  There  are 
other  serious  results  even  to  the  mild  form  of  this  disease.  Ewes 
are  prone  to  abort  and  lose  their  lambs;  the  wool  drops  off;  blind- 
ness occurs;  hoofs  rot  off;  and  the  sheep  which  survive  are  fre- 
quently wrecks  not  worth  saving.  The  treatment  is  hardly  to 
be  recommended.  Immediate  slaughter  and  deep  burial  of  the 
diseased  carcasses — in  short  unlimited  stamping  out  of  the  pestil- 
ence, which  being  communicable  to  persons,  is  and  should  be  the 
only  treatment  thought  of. 

Prevention  of  it  should  be  the  business  of  the  general  Govern- 
ment, but  as  private  enterprise  should  lead  to  caution  in  running 
risks  of  introducing  this  disease,  all  concerned  should  pass  all 
imported  sheep  through  a  sufficient  quarantine  before  mixing 
them  with  the  flock.  Inoculation  is  not  to  be  thought  of  as  long 
as  the  disease  is  not  existing  here. 

RETENTION  OF  THE  DUNG  IN  LAMBS. 

Sometimes  it  may  happen  that  by  the  first  glutinous  dis- 
charge from  the  bowels  of  a  new  born  lamb,  the  anus  becomes 
closed,  and  the  dung  is  no  longer  passed,  but  collects  in  the  lower 
gut.  This  becomes  distended,  and  if  relief  is  not  afforded  the 
young  animals  droops  and  soon  dies.  The  ewes,  inclined  thereto 
by  natural  instinct,  will  sometimes  afford  relief  by  rubbing  the 


356  THE    DOMESTIC  SHEEP. 

part  with  the  nose  and  licking  it.  But  in  some  cases  this  is  not 
effective,  and  the  shepherd  should  not  fail  to  inspect  the  young 
things  for  the  first  few  days  after  birth,  and  if  necessary  break 
this  crust  and  open  the  passage.  A  little  vaseline  or  sweet  oil 
applied  will  prevent  a  recurrence  of  this  trouble. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  TESTICLE. 

This  disorder  is  by  no  means  uncommon.  It  is  most  common 
in  the  breeding  season,  when  the  ram  may  be  overworked,  and 
it  is  frequently  the  result  of  accident. 

The  symptoms  are  quite  apparent,  being  a  swelling  of  the 
glands  so  that  the  animal  moves  with  a  straddling  gait,  the  tes- 
ticle, or  both  of  them,  is  enlarged  and  tender  to  the  touch,  and 
is  frequently  drawn  up  and  let  down  again. 

The  treatment  is  to  give  cooling  purgatives,  as  Epsom  salts, 
in  four  ounce  doses;  to  foment  the  scrotum  with  hot  water; 
then  applying  extract  of  belladonna  or  laudanum.  If  the  disease 
occurs  in  the  breeding  times  of  course  the  ram  is  to  be  separated 
from  the  flock  and  should  not  be  used  again  the  same  season. 

CASTRATION  OF  TESTICLES. 

The  castration  of  the  young  rams  intended  for  wethers,  is 
sometimes  apt  to  lead  to  serious  results  and  even  the  loss  of  the 
animal  operated  upon.  All  risk  of  this  is  avoided  by  performing 
this  necessary  operation  while  the  lamb  is  young,  and  at  about 
two  or  four  weeks  old.  At  this  time  the  organs  are  undeveloped, 
and  the  operation  is  a  simple  one  without  risk  of  complications 
by  inflammation  of  the  cord,  or  difficulty  of  healing  of  the  wound. 

For  a  lamb  of  this  age,  all  that  is  needed  is  to  take  the 
animal  under  the  left  arm,  holding  the  scrotum  with  the  left  hand, 
between  the  fore  finger  and  the  thumb,  then  with  a  pair  of  sharp 
shears  cut  off  the  scrotum  with  its  contents.  Apply  a  little  finely 
powdered  bluestone  (sulphate  of  copper)  or  a  little  fine  sugar, 
and  the  business  is  concluded  in  less  time  that  this  line  is  written. 

With  older  animals  more  care  is  to  be  exercised,  as  the  organ 
is  developed  to  a  far  greater  extent.  With  three  or  four  month 
old  lambs  intended  for  wethers  the  operation  is  thus  performed. 
An  assistant  holds  the  animal  firmly  in  any  convenient  position, 
preferably  on  a  bench  about  three  feet  high.  The  assistant  holds 
the  hind  legs  firmly,  drawing  them  forward.  The  operator  then 
with  the  left  hand  gathers  the  loose  skin  at  the  bottom  of  the  scro- 
tum by  the  fingers  and  with  a  round-edged,  bladed  castrating  knife, 
cuts  off  the  whole  bottom  of  the  bag  at  one  cut.  The  testicles 
are, then  pressed  out  at  this  free  opening,  and  the  cords  are  separ- 
ated by  scraping  them  apart  close  to  the  body,  so  that  when  the 
ends  are  released  they  will  be  drawn  into  the  body.  It  is  of  great 
importance  that  the  hands  should  be  clean,  having  been  washed 
with  carbolic  soap  before  beginning  the  operation,  and  they 
should  be  dipped  in  a  sterilizing  solution  of  bi-chloride  of  mer- 
cury after  each  operation,  thus  avoiding  probable  resulting  in- 
flammation after  the  operation,  and  this  is  the  only  source  of 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  357 

danger.  The  wound  is  then  sprayed  with  any  sterilizing  solution, 
or  dusted  with  sulphate  of  iron  finely  powdered,  or  witii  common 
sugar,  and  the  animal  is  set  free  in  a  clean  floored  barn  for  two 
days,  until  all  danger  of  secondary  inflammation  may  have 
passed.  Generally  it  is  quite  safe  to  release  the  animals  in  a  clean 
field,  if  it  is  not  a  season  when  flies  would  gather  on  the  wounds 
and  blow  them. 

At  the  same  time  when  the  young  lambs  are  emasculated  they 
should  be  docked,  if  this  operation  is  thought  necessary.  It  is 
hardly  to  be  considered  unless  as  a  safeguard  against  the  possible 
infection  of  the  wounds  by  the  blow  flies,  and  when  the  lambs 
are  to  be  fed  on  succulent  green  fodder  crops,  as  rape  or  turnips, 
and  fouling  behind  is  to  be  provided  for.  But  if  to  be  docked, 
the  lambs  are  operated  on  at  the  time  of  emasculating  them,  and 
in  this  simple  manner.  As  they  are  held  under  the  arm  as  above 
described  the  tail  is  taken  by  the  left  hand  fingers,  and  the  skin 
slipped  up  to  the  rump,  the  tail  is  then  clipped  off  at  the  intended 
spot  by  the  shears,  the  wound  covered  with  powdered  bluestone 
and  the  wool  drawn  over  it. 

PARASITES  "OF  THE  SHEEP.— SCAB. 

It  has  been  the  experience  of  all  shepherds,   from  time  im- 
memorial, that  sheep  were,  and  are,  "an  unhappy  flock."     This 
remark  was  made  by  one  who  possessed  several  thousand  sheep, 
and  in  whose  writings — consisting  of  poems  which  will  never  be 
neglected  or  forgotten,  while  the  human  race  endures,  and  given 
to  the  world  two  thousand  years  ago — he  simply  expressed  what 
has  been  the  universal  result  of  knowledge  in  the  care  of  sheep. 
And  doubtless  while  the  causes  of  the  numerous  diseases  due  to 
attacks   by  parasites  without,   and   within   the  sheep,   were   un- 
known, the  diseases  thus  produced  were  as  wetl  known  as  tjhey 
are  to-day,   that   is,   in   regard  to  the   effects  of  them,   although 
the  special  causes  of  most  of  them  were  not  understood  as  we 
now  know  them.     What  "can  be  more  emphatic  than  this  quota- 
tion rendered  from  Virgil's  third  Georgics,  in  regard  to  a  disease 
which  is  even  now  the,  bane  and   the  constant  thought  of  the 
shepherd,  and  which  causes  him  untold  apprehension  and  labor 
to  evade:    "I   command   that   the   sheep   be   supplied  with   grass 
(hay)   in  soft  stables  until  the  leafy  summer  is  restored,  and  to 
spread  the  hard  floor  with  much  straw  and  bundles  of  fern  under 
them,  lest  the  cold  ice  may  injure  the  gentle  flocks  and  produce 
the  scab   and   filthy   sores."     Moreover  those   ancient   shepherds 
well  understood  the  practice  of  smearing  the  sheep  as  a  preven- 
tive or  cure  of~this  worst  of  all  the  parasites  of  the  flock,  al- 
though the   true   nature   of   it   was   then   unknown.      Indeed    as 
late  as  the  last  century  it  was  not  known,  but  the  best  informed 
of  the   shepherds  of  that  day  thought  the   disease   was   due   to 
"'suppressed  perspiration,  and  bad  keep,  dogging  and  exposure  to 
cold  and  wet."    The  scab  insect  then  was  declared  to  be  of  spon- 
taneous origin,  and  the  existence  of  the  pestiferous  insect  was 
never  understood  as  we  now  know  it. 


358  THE  DOMESTIC  SHEEP. 

Recent  exact  knowledge  now  goes  to  help  us  greatly  in  strug- 
gling with  this  and  all  other  parasites  of  our  flocks,  but  the 
evil  is  so  widespread  and  virulent,  and  there  are  so  many  who 
keep  sheep  who  will  not  take  the  pains  needed  to  exterminate 
all  the  pests  of  the  flock,  that  it  is  hopeless  to  expect  full  deliv- 
erance from  them.  And  the  shepherd  must  still  be  watchful,  ex- 
pert, and  industrious,  to  avert  the  risks  as  far  as  may  be  possible. 

These  parasites  are  external  or  internal,  the  former  are  few 
in  number,  but  the  latter  abound,  and  the  variety  of  them  is  as- 
tounding to  those  who  study  the  matter  in  its  full  bearings. 
Of  the  external  enemies  of  this  class  which  trouble  the  flock  by 
far  the  worst  are: 

THE  SCAB  MITE. 

These  are  insects  of  the  family  known  as  Acari,  in  which  is 
included  the  common  itch  mite,  which  infests  mankind.  It  also 
includes  three  species  which  affect  sheep.  These  are  known  as 
the  Sarcoptes  scabici,  which  infests  the  head  of  the  sheep;  Psorop- 


FIG.  27.— Scabby  Sheep— Taken  from  Photograph. 

tes  communis,  which  infests  the  body,  and  Chorioptes  communis, 
which  affects  the  feet.  The  life  history  of  these  insects  is  similar 
in  each  ppecies.  They  attack  the  skin  and  bite  it,  and  these 
wounds  so  made  form  scabs,  under  which  the  pests  lay  their 
eggs.  Each  female  produces  an  average  of  ten  young,  which  ma- 
ture in  fifteen  days,  thus  in  the  short  season  of  three  months 


DISEASES  OF   SHEEP.  359 

the  progeny  of  a  single  mite  may  number  a  full  million.  Figures 
fail  to  convey  the  desperate  condition  of  an  unfortunate  sheep 
on  which  only  a  few  of  these  mites  are  existing  at  the  outset  of 
a  Summer.  The  picture  of  a  scabby  sheep  here  given,  affords 
some  approximate  idea  of  the  condition  of  the  animal  unless  re- 
lieved of  the  millions  of  these  insects  which  are  burrowing  under 
the  diseased  skin,  covered  by  these  filthy  sores,  as  described  in 
the  above  quotation. 

If  any  inquiring  reader  will  take  a  piece  of  this  dry  scab  from 
one  of  these  sores,  and  lay  it  on  a  piece  of  white  paper  under  a 
common  magnifying  glass,  the  insects  may  be  seen  moving  like 
so  much  dust  on  the  sheet.  When  more  highly  magnified  the 
insect  appears  much  like  a  spider,  to  which  it  is  somewhat  re- 
lated, as  may  be  seen  in  the  engraving  below  which  shows  the 
mature  insect. 

THE  HEAD  SCAB  MITE— AN  ADULT  FEMALE. 
SARCOPTES   SCABICI,   VARIETY  OV1S. 

The  head  mites  infest  the  skin  of  the  sheep's  head,  beginning 
at  the  lips,  near  the  nostrils,  and  eyelids  and  ears.  From  these 

points  they  spread  over  the  face 
and  even  down  to  the  fore  legs, 
under  the  belly  and  back  of  the 
knees,  where  the  wool  is  short. 
These  pests  go  into  the  long  wool, 
or  the  coarse  fine  oily  kinds,  but 
prefer  the  short,  dry  fleece  to 
work  in. 

The  first  indication  is  the  rub- 
bing of  the  head  by  the   sheep, 
FIG.  28.-Highly  Magnified.  and  the  extent  of  the  invasion  is 

to    be    judged   by    the   efforts   of 

the  sheep  to  rid  itself  of  its  tormentors.  At  first  there  are  slight 
elevations  of  the  skin  with  soft  centers,  which  break  of  them- 
selves, and  discharge  a  thin  fluid  which  dries  and  forms  hard 
scabs,  which  adhere  to  the  skin  and  the  hairs.  In  these  shelters 
the  insects  feed,  produce  their  young,  and  increase  in  number. 
As  this  increase  makes  it  necessary  these  spots  spread  until  the 
skin  is  covered  with  scabs,  which  increase  in  size  and  thickness, 
forming  white,  hard  masses.  In  time  they  cover  the  face,  lips, 
and  forehead,  and  as  the  sheep  rub  themselves  these  scabs  are 
broken  and  bleed.  In  time  the  wounds  heal  and  scars  are  formed. 
At  times  the  eyes  are  completely  covered  by  the  scabs,  and  the 
sheep  becomes  blind  and  helpless. 

Infection  occurs  from  sheep  to  sheep,  thus  spreading  through 
the  flock.  There  is  no  other  way  by  which  these  insects  propa- 
gate or  originate,  but  the  ordinary  process  of  generation  from 
parents  to  offspring  and  so  on  through  succeeding  generations. 
Thus  the  only  way  to  find  relief  is  to  destroy  the  insects,  thus 
cutting  off  the  parents  and  stopping  the  increase.  There  are 
necessarily  several  ways  of  this  infection  spreading.  The  insects 


360  THE  DOMESTIC  SHEEP. 

drop  from  the  diseased  sheep  on  to  the  ground,  where  other 
sheep  may  lie,  and  others  lying  on  the  same  ground,  will  of 
course  become  infected.  They  are  rubbed  off  as  the  sheep 
scratch  themselves  in  the  vain  effort  to  get  relief,  on 
fences,  walls,  and  other  places,  and  the  infection  easily  spreads 
from  these.  As  a  flock  passes  on  the  road,  another  following  will 
easily  pick  up  the  contagion.  Sheep  cars  are  notorious  sources 
of  infection  obviously,  and  one  scabby  animal  may  infect  thou- 
sands on  a  range  which  may  follow  in  its  track. 

This  form  of  the  disease  is  specially  different  from  the  other 
two,  and  cannot  be  mistaken  for  either  of  the  others.  It  is  indis- 
pensable, considering  the  enormous  increase  in  the  numbers 
of  it,  that  instant  measures  be  taken  for  its  destruction  and  the 
saving  of  the  flock.  Fortunately  the  location  of  the  pest  makes 
its  first  appearance  so  prominent  that  no  mistake  can  be  made 
in  distinguishing  it,  and  then  the  remedy  is  easy.  This  is  to  wash 
the  parts  affected  in  any  of  the  dips  to  be  procured  in  the  mar- 
ket, or  of  any  of  the  ointments  made  for  this  purpose,  or  to  apply 
any  kind  of  sweet  thin  oil  rubbing  it  well  into  the  scabs  after 
washing  with  carbolic  or  tar  soap,  and  repeating  the  treatment 
until  it  is  certain  that  it  has  been  effective. 

THE  COMMON  SCAB  MITE-PSOROPTES  COMMUNIS. 

This  is  the  most  to  be  feared  by  the  shepherds  of  all  the  ex- 
ternal parasites  of  the  flock.  It  is  a  much  larger  insect  than  the 
head  mite,  and  is  visible  to  the  unaided  eye  if  gathered  on  some 


FIG.  29.— Male  and  Female  Scab  Insects- 
white  surface.     It   has  been   so  neglected,   as  seems  to  be  the 
rule,  left  for  some  one  else  to  attend  to,  that  it  has  gained  an 
almost  impregnable  footing  through  the  whole  world.    It  has  thus 
become  the  subject  of  legislation  in  many  countries,  but  this  as 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  361 

a  rule  is  based  on  the  same  principle,  "let  others  do  it."  But  if 
all  concerned  were  actuated— let  us  say— by  common  sound  sense, 
this  disease  might  be  exterminated  utterly  in  a  few  years;  the 
greatesj;  difficulty  being  experienced  in  the  first  three  from  the 
beginning.  After  that  the  work  would  be  easy  and  more  and 
more  effective,  as  the  numbers  of  the  pests  became  reduced.  But 
under  present  circumstances,  in  which  the  rule  seems  to  be  how  not 
to  do  it,  the  pestilence  yearly  becomes  more  and  more  extended, 
and  relief  fades  into  the  uncertain  distance.  Thus  the  shepherd  is 
under  the  necessity  of  dipping  his  sheep  twice  a  year  and  still 
with  only  negative  results. 

The  habits  of  this  insect  are  similar  to  those  of  the  previously 
described  one.  The  first  symptoms  of  its  presence  are  that  the 
sheep  are  seen  to  be  biting  themselves,  apparently  nibbling  the 
wool.  This  of  itself  is  bad,  for  the  wool  is  apt  to  be  swallowed 
and  gathers  in  the  intestines  where  it  forms  balls,  which  by  ac- 
cumulation of  mucus  and  more  wool,  finally  obstruct  the  intes- 
tines and  cause  trouble  which  is  most  likely  to  end  fatally.  This 
is  one  of  the  results  of  this  infection  which  otherwise  would  not 
happen.  The  fleece  of  a  scabby  sheep  soon  becomes  rough,  ragged, 
and  matted  in  patches,  these  spreading  until  in  time  they  meet, 
when  the  animal  exhibits  the  wretched  appearance  showed  at  fig. 
27.  At  this  stage  of  the  disease,  the  crusts  have  greatly  increased 
in  thickness,  and  are  more  firmly  adherent  to  the  body.  These 
crusts,  in  the  same  manner  as  some  of  the  vegetable  growths 
like  ringworm,  spread  from  the  outer  edge,  and  thus  continually 
grow  larger,  while  the  centers  heal,  but  leave  the  bare  skin. 
If  the  inflammation  has  penetrated  to  the  wool  follicles  of  the 
skin,  in  which  the  fibers  are  rooted,  these  spots  will  remain  per- 
manently bare,  rough,  and  unsightly. 

In  those  places  in  which  the  fleece  still  exists,  it  is  stuck  to- 
gether in  rough  masses,  tangled  and  matted,  felted  in  fact,  and 
and  thus  the  sheep  in  its  efforts  to  relieve  itself  from  the  intolera- 
ble irritation,  tears  off  the  wool,  leaving  bare  spots,  not  as  yet 
so  far  been  diseased,  but  only  as  to  form  scabs,  but  yet  so  far  as  to 
loosen  the  wool.  This  species  is  most  inclined  to  the  thickest 
and  longest  wool,  and  hence  it  does  the  most  damage  to  the 
flock  owner.  The  disease  begins  on  the  back,  spreading  to  the 
rump  and  down  the  flanks.  The  scabs  are  at  first  separated ;  as 
the  disease  spreads  from  the  centers  first  infected;  but  in  time 
these  spots  run  together  leaving  between  the  active  centers  bare 
patches  in  thickened  skin.  At  the  edges  of  these  patches  the  in- 
sects are  found  in  the  greatest  numbers,  and  entirely  cover  the 
skin.  They  may  there  be  seen  moving  in  large  clusters,  and  if 
picked  up  and  placed  on  the  hand  their  motions  are  easily  visible. 
Old  and  young  of  each  sex,  in  the  act  of  propagating,  and  the 
eggs,  may  all  be  gathered  in  this  way  for  observation  by  the 
curicus. 

The  disease  is  at  its  worst  in  the  Fall  and  Winter.  As  may  be 
thought  the  poorly  nourished  and  exposed  flocks  suffer  the  mo«t 
because  of  their  want  of  ability  to  resist,  and  the  disease  will 


362  THE  DOMESTIC  SHEEP 

make  a  slower  progress  as  the  flock  is  more  able  to  resist  the  ad- 
vances of  the  parasites. 

"The  fittest  survive."  This  is  one  of  the  organic  laws  of  the 
universe,  and  in  addition  to  all  the  precautions  by  which  these 
pests  are  destroyed,  as  by  the  semi-annual  dipping,  and  by  every 
precaution  against  infection,  by  dipping  thoroughly  every  exposed 
animal  brought  into  a  flock,  we  must  secure  exemption  from  this 
worst  of  all  ailments  of  the  sheep.  The  old  sheep,  too,  should  be 
dipped  in  time  to  secure  the  lambs  against  infection,  and  what- 
ever sheep  are  found  to  be  suffering  from  the  parasite  should 
be  most  carefully  isolated  until  treatment  can  be  used  to  disin- 
fect them.  In  using  any  dip  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  prepare 
the  sheep  by  a  previous  application,  by  which  the  scabs  may  be 
softened  and  to  break  these  up  at  the  same  time  by  some  rough 
means,  as  by  a  bundle  of  corn  cobs  so  arranged  as  to  effect  this 
purpose  in  a  thorough  manner.  For  it  will  be  obvious  that  unless 
the  crusts  are  broken  into,  so  that  the  dip  will  reach  the  insects, 
much  of  the  effect  of  the  dipping  will  be  thrown  away  .uselessly. 
In  short,  in  this,  as  in  all  similar  operations  of  the  shepherd, 
that  valuable  quality  known  as  gumption  is  to  be  made  use  of  in. 
a  thorough  manner. 

We  prefer  to  say  nothing  as  to  the  dips,  except  to  guard  our 
readers  against  the  far  too  acrid  sulphur-and-lime  mixture,  on  ac- 
count of  its  bad  effect  on  the  fleeces  of  sheep  dipped  in  a  precau- 
tionary manner,  and  as  a  preventive  of  the  disease.  There  are 
so  many  good  and  safe  dips  in  the  market  that  it  will  be  found 
best  to  depend  on  those  which  are  made  under  accurate  methods, 
as  to  quantities  and  qualities,  and  follow  the  expert  advice  in 
their  application,  and  so  avoid  misuse  or  ineffective  work, 
and  also  the  certain  injury  to  the  fleece  which  is  one  sure 
result  of  this  too  acrid  dip  referred  to.  For  it  is  a  matter  of  ex- 
perience that  the  saving  of  this  loss  will  not  only  insure  success 
in  the  work,  but  wijl  pay  the  whole  expense  of  it. 

THE  MAGGOT. 

The  maggot  is  a  larvae  of  the  common  flesh  fly  (sarcophaga 
carnaria),  the  blue-bottle  fly  (musca  Caesar),  and  the  meat  fly 
(musca  vomitoria),  all  of  which  deposit  eggs  on  decaying  animal 

matter.  These  eggs  or  larvae  are 
deposited  in  vast  numbers  in 
sores  or  wounds  or  where  sheep 
become  filthy  when  troubled  with 
diarrhea.  A  single  Sarcophagus 
sometimes  contains  twenty  thou- 

FIG.  3Q.-Maggot  Fly.  sand  eggs.      The  maggot  attacks 

the  skin,  causing  extreme  irrita- 
tion and  finally  a  serous  fluid;  the  skin  is  pierced  and  the  flesh 
supperates  and  wastes  away,  being  literally  eaten  up  by  the 
multitudes  of  maggots  crawling  over  it.  Wet  seasons  are  particu- 
larly bad  for  this  pest.  It  is  necessary  to  remove  the  wool  from 
about  the  infected  parts  and  apply  any  of  the  sheep  dips  or  com- 


DISEASES  OF   SHEEP. 


mon  crude  petroleum  which  are  repulsive  and  fatal  to  the  fly  and 
maggot.  When  the  fly  "strikes"  a  sheep  it  will  often  wander 
away,  and  unless  found  and  treated  will  be  literally  eaten  up. 
Watch  the  ewes  at  weaning  time  for  this  pest  as  the  udder  may 
become  caked,  and  the  fly  will  strike. 

THE  SHEEP  LOUSE-TRICHODECTES 
SPHAEROCEPHALUS. 

The  mere  exposure  of  sheep  to  any  disturbing  influence  is 
disastrous.  Thus  the  louse,  by  which  the  sheep  is  annoyed,  is 
sufficiently  worth  notice  in  this  regard  to  cause  the  shepherd 
to  tixKe  the  due  precautions  to  secure  the  sheep  from  the  annoy- 
ance of  it. 

The  red-headed  Sheep  Louse  (Frichodectes  Sphaerocephalus) 
was  almost  unknown  in  this  country  until  recent  years.  It  is  now 


FIG.  31. 
Eggs  on  Wool  Fibers. 


FIG.  32. 
Sheep  Louise;  Highly  Magnified. 


becoming  very  abundant  in  some  sections,  and  the  damage  it  does 
to  young  lambs  and  sheep  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  engage 
the  attention  of  every  flockmaster. 

The  true  sheep  louse  rarely  exceeds  one-twenty-fifth  of  an 
inch  in  length.  The  female  is  slightly  longer  and  larger  than  the 
male.  Its  head  occupies  about  one-fourth  its  length  and  is  of  a 
pale  reddish  color.  The  adults  lay  their  eggs  at  the  base  of  the 
wool  fibers  and  a  glutinous  substance  sticks  them  there.  The  lice 
are  generally  found  on  the  bare  spots  between  the  legs  and  body, 
just  under  the  shoulder.  In  young  lambs  and  open-wool  sheep 
they  may  frequently  be  found  in  large  numbers  on  the  back  of 
the  neck. 

The  injury  wrought  by  these  parasites  is  very  considerable. 
They  live  on  the  blood  of  the  host,  and  in  biting  through  the  skin 
they  cause  an  intense  itching  sensation  and  leave  a  wound.  They 
give  great  discomfort  to  the  sheep  and  the  wool  becomes  gnarly 
and  worthless  wherever  these  pests  attack  the  skin. 

In  New  Zealand  dipping  for  these  parasites  has  been  made 
compulsory  by  the  government.  Sheep  lice  rarely  ever  attack 
the  fine  wool  or  Merino  sheep.  One  dipping  in  any  standard 
dip.  will  be  sufficient  to  not  only  kill  the  live  lice,  but  also  destroy 
all  the  eggs  of  these  parasites. 


364  THE  DOMESTIC  SHEEP. 

THE  SHEEP  TICK— MELOPHAGUS  OVINUS. 

Some  writers  on  sheep  and  their  numerous  troubles,  have 
said  that  this  insect  seldom  causes  much  damage  to  the  sheep 
in  any  way.  Experienced  shepherds  will  differ  in  this.  They  are  well 

aware  that  this  insect  does  very 
serious  injury  to  the  sheep  as 
being  both  the  direct  and  indirect 
cause  of  not  only  inconvenience, 
but  disturbance  of  the  health  and 
prosperity  of  both  the  sheep  and 
the  lambs.  They  interfere  with 
the  growth  of  the  lambs  by 
crowding  on  to  them  as  soon  as 
the  ewes  are  shorn,  and  then 
begins  a  mostly  unsuspected 
drainage  of  the  life  blood  of 

the  hope  of  the  flock,  as  the  ancient  writer  well  called  the  lambs. 
The  lambs,  suffering  seriously  from  these  blood  suckers,  one  hun- 
dred of  which  on  a  lamb  will  easily  drain  it  dry  of  blood  in  a  few 
days,  cannot  prosper,  and  soon  become  emaciated  and  weak, 
and  never  after  recover  the  loss  of  vitality  thus  inflicted  on 
them. 

This  insect  is  a  degraded  fly  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  hav- 
ing no  wings,  but  six  legs  only.  The  species  differs  from  the  true 
ticks,  which  belong  to  the  spider  family,  while  the  sheep  tick  is  a 
member  of  the  diptera  or  two-winged  insects,  which  have  only  six 
legs,the  spider  families  having  eight  legs.  Like  many  other  flies, 
as  the  deer  fly,  the  horse  fly,  and  the  mosquito,  the  sheep  tick  is  a 
blood  sucker  and  an  exceedingly  hungry  one.  Sixty  drops  are  the 
usual  measure  of  one  liquid  ounce,  and  an  inch  tick  will  easily 
draw  several  drops  of  blood  from  a  lamb  in  twenty-four  hours, 
always  having  its  pump  in  operation,  day  and  night,  and  it  is  by 
no  means  rare  that  a  hundred  of  these  pests  may  feed  on  one 
lamb,  it  is  easy  to  figure  out  the  problem,  how  long  will  so  many 
ticks  drain  a  lamb  dry  of  blood. 

When  the  ewes  are  shorn,  the  ticks  migrate  immediately  on  to 
the  lambs,  burying  themselves  in  the  thick,  short  wool  and  im- 
mediately begin  active  business.  This  serious  view  of  the  case 
of  the  ticks  against  the  sheep,  is  not  sufficiently  considered;  and 
it  should  be  made  a  practice  when  the  sheep  are  shorn,  to  pro 
ceed  at  once  to  dip  the  lambs  and  so  relieve  them  of  these 
persecutors  for  good  and  all,  and  of  course  save  the  sheep  in  the 
future.  As  to  this,  the  tick  should  be  classed  next  to  the  scab 
mite,  and  treated  accordingly. 

This  fly  has  a  unique  interest  to  the  scientific  student,  inas- 
much as  it  brings  forth  its  young,  not  in  the  form  of  eggs  or  liv- 
ing larvae,  but  in  an  advanced  stage  as  pupae.  These  are  the 
almost  round,  red  bodies,  seen  attached  to  the  wool  on  ticky  ani- 
mals. They  are  to  be  got  rid  of  most  industriously.  The  author 
has  had  experience  in  clearing  the  lambs  and  sheep  both  in  a 


DISEASES  OF   SHEEP.  365 

unique  Avay  probably.  This  is  by  keeping  a  flock  of  fowls  in  the 
sheepyard  at  the  lambing  season,  and  indeed  at  all  times.  Feed- 
ing them  when  the  sheep  are  fed,  for  the  mere  purpose  of  ob- 
serving how  they  will  most  industriously  pick  the  ticks  out  of  the 
wool  of  both  ewes  and  lambs.  This  the  fowls  do  most  effectively 
in  the  warm  days  when  the  ticks  come  to  the  surface  of  the  fleece 
to  cool  themselves  and  get  the  fresh  air.  These  insects  cannot 
live  apart  from  the  sheep  over  a  few  days,  and  thus  their  voracity 
is  well  accounted  for.  It  is  not  only  the  loss  of  blood  that  weak- 
ens the  sheep  and  much  more  the  lambs,  but  the  intolerable 
pain  caused  by  their  bites.  Like  the  mosquito  they  inject  into 
the  wounds  they  make  some  poison,  which  liquidates  the  blood, 
and  this  produces  a  more  annoying  irritation  than  the  mosquito 
does.  The  poison  causes  swelling  of  the  skin,  which  lasts— as  Dr. 
Curtis  states  in  his  work  on  the  Animal  Parasites  of  the  Sheep — 
for  over  a  week,  and  is  accompanied  by  a  worse  itching  than  that 
of  mosquito  bites.  Those  concerned  who  have  experienced  the 
severe  pain  of  the  bites  of  the  mosquito,  will  surely  sympathize 
with  the  sheep,  "always  an  unhappy  flock,"  according  to  the  old 
writer,  and  all  modern  experience. 

Treatment  for  this  parasite  consists  mostly  of  dipping,  in  the 
same  way,  and  at  the  same  time,  as  for  the  scab.  Indeed,  it  is 
the  best  way  to  dip  the  flock  expressly  for  this  purpose  at  the 
shearing  time,  which  is  also  advisable  —  indeed  it  may  be 
said  indispensable — as  a  means  of  avoiding  infection  by  the  scab, 
or  curing  insipient  infection  already  accomplished,  by  exposure  to 
the  disease.  Thus  we  accomplish  two  valuable  ends  at  one  opera- 
tion. The  ticks  that  remain  in  the  wool  wrapped  in  the  folded 
fleeces  will  starve  in  a  few  days.  If  this  operation  is  neglected, 
the  seed  will  be  sown  for  the  coming  years  the  next  Summer. 


866  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

PROMINENT  SYMPTOMS  OF  COMMON  DISEASES. 

Appetite,  Depraved,  Ravenous. — Worms  in  the  intestines.    Indi- 
gestion. 
'Want  of. — Over  feeding.    Any   serious  disorders  of   the 

system. 

Biting  the  hind  legs. — Myelitis. 
Bleating. — Indigestion.       Irnpaotion     of     the     rumen     (the     first 

stomach. 
Bowels,  Constipated. — Impaction    of    the    fourth    or    the    third 

stomach.    Rheumatism.    Indigestion. 
Looseness  of.— Disease  of  the  liver.  Fluke  diseases.  Chronic 

Indigestion.    Intestinal  worms. 

Breathing,  Rapid- — Anthrax.    With  dry,  hot  mouth,  fevers. 
Gasping.— Impaction  of  stomach. 
Long  and  short  alternately.    Inflammation  of  the  lungs. 

Pleurisy.    Pleuro-pneumonia. 
Rattling  and  .loose.    Pleuro-pneumonia. 
Cough,   Frequent  and  short. — Indigestion.    Catarrh. 
Husky. — Thread  worms  in  the  throat. 
Deep  and  rattling.— Bronchitis.    Pleurisy. 

Discharge,  from  Nose.— Thin.  Catarrh.  Bronchitis  (changing  to 
thick  and  dry,  about  the  nostrils.)  Grubs  in  the 
head.  (Mixed  with  blood.)  Influenza  (greenish  or 
creamy) . 

From  the  vulva. — White,  thin,  Leucorrhea  (inflamma- 
tion of  the  womb).  Yellowish,  purulent,  approach 
of  abortion. 

From  the  eyes.— Ophthalmia.  Injury  by  stubble,  or  alka- 
line dust  on  the  range.  From  the  penis  of  rams. 
Gonnorhea.  Gleet.  (This  is  contagious  to  the 
ewes.) 

Eyes. — Cloudiness- — Inflammation  of  cornea.  Bluish  film.   Ophthal- 
mia. 

Redness. — Inflammation  of  the  interior  of  the  eye. 
Thick  film  over  cornea. — Cataract. 

Redness,  with  weeping. — Anthrax.    (Black  leg  or  black  quar- 
ter).   One  of  the  first  symptoms. 

Weeping. — Catarrh.    Injury  V     chaff  or  alkaline  dust. 
Fleece,  Harsh,  dry. — Disease  of  the  liver.    Worms  in  intestines. 
Loosening. — Congestion   of  skin.    Indigestion.    Result  of  a 

general  low  condition. 

Giddiness. — Disease    of    the    brain.      Impaction    of    the    stomach. 
With  turning  around.    Cysts  of  tapeworm  (Tenia  Coenurus) 
in  the  brain.   This  disorder  is  often  called  Gid- 
Head  held  up. — Tapeworm  cysts  in  the  brain.    Myelitis. 
Jaws,    swelling  under.  —  Soft,     watery.      Disease     of     the     liver. 

Flukes.    Tape  worms. 

Harder. — Disease  of  the  thyroid  gland  (Goitre). 
General  weakness  of  the  system  and  im- 
poverished blood.  Dropsy.  General  low 
condition. 


DISEASES   OF  SHEEP  367 

Lameness. — Going  on  the  knees. — Foot  rot.    Sore  feet. 

In  the  hind  limbs.— Paralysis,  due  to  brain  disease. 
Leaping  motions- — Louping  ill.    Myelitis.    Congestion  of  the  brain. 
Lips  sore.— Aphtha,  injury  by  stubble  pasturing.    Fevers.    Effects 

of  Porcupine  grass.     (Stipa  Spartea.)     Fevers. 
Loco.— Insanity  from  eating  crazy  weed  (Astragalus  Mollismus-or 

Oxytropis  Lambert!) . 
Liver,  spotted. — Congestion.      Inflammation.      Flukes    and    other 

worms,  in  gall  bladder  and  ducts. 

Milt,  soft,  black  and  swollen. — Anthrax,  Splenic  fever. 
Moving  in  circles  or  straight  ahead  with  head  up. — Cysts  of  the 

bladder — tape  worm  (Coenurus  cerebralis). 
Neck  stiff. — Myelitis.    Rheumatism. 

Paralysis. — Disease  of  the  brain.  Myelitis.  Injury  to  spinal  cord. 
Loco  weeds.  Ergot  from  smutty  grass,  corn  fodder,  or 
grain.  Indigestion.  Exposure  to  cold  rain.  In  young  lambs 
inherited. 

Pawing. — Indigestion.    Impaction  of  stomach. 
Scours,  white  in  lambs. — Indigestion.    Effects  of  diseases  of  the 

bowels  or  liver  in  ewes. 

Shivering. — Fevers.    Anthrax.    Splenic  fever. 
Skin,  Pale. — Thread  worms  in  throat. 

Red. — Congestion.    First  indication  of  scab. 

Yellow. — Disease  of  liver.    Fluke  disease.    Disease  of  liver  by 

tape  worms. 
Slobbering. — Indigestion.    Sore  mouth.    Diseased  teeth.    Poisoning 

by  laurel  or  loco  weeds. 

Sneezing. — Grubs  in  head.   Influenza:    Catari'h. 
Snorting. — Grub  in  head- 

Spasmodic  motions. — Meningitis.  Hydatids  in  brain. 
Stiffness  of  limbs  and  neck. — Rheumatism.  Myelitis. 
Staggering. — Inflammation  of  the  brain.  Poisoning  by  laurel  and 

loco  weeds.    Cysts  of  tape  worms  in  the  brain. 
Stomach   bloated. — Hoven   or   bloating.     Indigestion.     Poisoning. 
Stupor. — Disease    of    brain  —  the    last    and    hopeless    stage.    Epi- 
zootic  influenza.    Last   stage  of  diseases   of   the   lungs  and 
pleuro-pneumonia. 

Teeth  grating. — Indigestion.    Fluke  disease.    Poisoning. 
Throat  glands  swollen. — Dropsy.    Disease  of  the  thyroid  gland,  es- 
pecially prevalent  in  lambs. 
Soft   swelling. — Liver   disease.     Dropsy.     Tape   and    other 

worms  producing  general  debility.    Fluke  disease- 
Trembling. — Disease  of  the  brain.    Myelitis.    Poisoning,  especially 

by  laurel. 

Urine,  red. — Disease  of  the  bladder,  by  gravel  or  stone,  or  inflam- 
mation. 

Disease  of  the  liver  a  result  of  indigestion. 
Disease  of  the  kidneys. 
Dark  red. — Anthrax.    Splenic  fever. 
Vulva,  red. — Indication  of  heat  in  ewes. 

Red  and  swollen. — Premonitory  of  abortion. 


368  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

Wool,  falling.— Scab.  Congestion  of  the  skin.  Law  condition  of 
the  system. 

Harsh  and  dry. — Disease  of  the  skin.    Fevers. 

Biting  of,  by  sheep. — Ticks,  lice,  irritation  of  skin  by  indi- 
gestion. Effects  of  various  worms. 

-  It  is  not  a  safe  way  to  treat  a  sheep  from  any  one  of  these 
symptoms  alone.  There  are  several  of  them  associated  with  every 
disease  mentioned.  It  is  therefore  indispensable  that  every  indica- 
tion is  to  be  carefully  noted,  and  when  the  several  symptoms  agree 
together  the  disease  may  then  be  safely  diagnosed,  and  treated  ac- 
cordingly. The  prognosis  of  any  disease — that  is,  the  expectation 
of  its  course  and  end — may  be  gathered  from  the  urgency  of  the 
various  symptoms  and  the  association  of  them  in  each  special 
case.  It  is  to  be  always  considered  that  sheep  are  the  lowest  or- 
ganized of  all  the  domestic  animals-  This  is  doubtless  due  to  the 
fact  that  from  the  very  first  association  of  this  animal  with  man- 
kind, and  its  consequent  dependence  on  the  shepherd  for  its 
safety  and  care,  it  has  become  so  weakened  in  constitution  as  to 
be  the  least  of  all  the  domesticated  animals  to  resist  misfortune. 
And  hence  the  most  watchful  care  of  the  shepherd  is  called  for 
to  avoid  misfortune,  and  to  watch  carefully  for  the  first  indica- 
tion of  it,  and  then  treat  without  delay  and  while  treatment  may 
be  effective. 


LIST  OF  REMEDIES  AND  USES,  SPECIALLY  FOR  SHEEP. 

Aconite,  Tincture  of. — Sedative  for  inflammations.    Sheep  3  to  5 

drops. 
Ammonia,    Carbonate.  —  Stimulant,    anti-spasmodic,    indigestion. 

i  to  1  dram. 

Areca  nut,  vermifuge.— For  worms  in  dogs.    |  to  1  dram. 
Belladonna,   extract- — Anti-spasmodic.     For  spasmodic  affections. 

Myelitis.    Paraplegia.    ^  dram. 

Bismuth,  sub-nitrate.— Soothes  irritation  of  stomach.    Catarrh. 
Bromide  Potassium. — Nerve  sedative.    Myelitis.    Inflammation  of 

brain.     J  dram. 
Camphor. — Sedative. — Anti-spasmodic.      Myelitis.       Impaction    of 

stomach.    Diarrhea.    Dysentery.     1  scruple. 
Castor  oil. — Purgative. — Worms.    3  to  4  ounces. 
Copper  sulphate. — Astringent.    Wounds,  sores,  cuts.    In  solution 

or  powder. 
Digitalis. — Dandelion   extract. — Diuretic.     Sedative.     Fevers.     10 

grains. 
Gentian.— Tonic.    Want  of  appetite.    Weakness.    Worms.    1  to  2 

drams. 

Ginger. — Stimulant.  Tonic.  Indisrestion.  (With   gentian)    |   ounce. 
Iodine. — Alterative.   Diuretic.    Diseases  of  kidneys. 
Iodide  of  Potassium. — Alterative.    Diuretic.    3  scruples. 
Iron   sulphate. — Astrinerent.     Tonic.     Checks   bleeding.    Wounds. 

Indigestion.    With  gentian. 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP.  369 

Laudanum. — Sedative.    Anti-spasmodic.    Myelitis.    2  drams. 

Linseed  oil. — Purgative.    \  pint-    Checks  dysentery.    2  ounces. 

Magnesia  sulphate. — Epsom  salts. — Purgative.  Cooling.  Indiges- 
tion. Fevers.  Constipation.  4  ounces.  For  diarrhea  \  dose. 

Nux  vomica. — Nerve  stimulant.  Hydro-Rachitis.  Myelitis.  Par- 
alysis. 5  to  10  grains. 

Podophyllin. — Mandrake. — Puigative.  Diorders  of  liver.     15  grains. 

Potassa  chlorate. --Stimulant.  Anti-septic.  Cooling.  Fevers. 
Black  leg.  30  grains. 

Soda   chloride. — Salt- — Tonic.     Vermifuge.     Indigestion.     \   ounce. 

Soda,  Hyposulphite.  —  Alterative.  Disinfectant.  Black  leg.  4 
drams. 

San  ton  ine. — Vermifuge.    Stomach  worms.    2  to  4  drams. 

Spanish  fly. — Cantharides. — Stimulant.  Diuretic.  Stimulant  for 
ewes  in  season.  1  to  2  grains. 

Sulphur.— Promotes  perspiration.     Laxative.    1  to  2  ounces. 

Tar. — Anti-septic.    Tonic.    For  wounds.    \  ounce. 

Turpentine. — Anti-spasmodic.  Diuretic.  Myelitis.  Bloating.  C  ;ld*. 
1  to  2  drams. 

Turpentine. — Vermifuge.  Stomach,  lung  and  other  worms.  4 
drams. 

It  is  to  be  carefully  noted  that  the  sheep  is  the  lowest  organ- 
ized of  all  domestic  animals  as  to  its  nervous  system.  No  other 
animal  so  soon  submits  to  misfortune  and  fails  to  rally  from  a 
depressed  condition.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  study  carefully 
the  various  symptoms  present  in  any  case  of  disease,  and  consider 
whether  a  sedative  or  stimulant  is  called  for.  The  latter  is  re- 
quired when  great  weakness  and  prostration  call  for  it.  and  in 
oases  in  which,  otherwise  sedatives  are  injurious.  Generally  treat- 
ment is  needed  at  intervals  of  six  hours,  to  be  repeated  if  not 
then  effective.  For  lambs  from  6  months  to  a  year  old  the  doses 
.should  be  reduced  to  one-half  those  required  by  a  full  grown  sheep. 
Sedatives  allay  and  lessen  excitement,  in  which  the  action  of  th« 
nervous  system  is  excessive.  This  class  of  remedies  depress,  stimu- 
lants excite,  nervous  action.  Tonics  strengthen  the  vital  functions 


ERRATA. 

Page   76,  fifteenth  line  from  bottom,  read  hardy  for  hairy. 
134,  fourth  line  from  bottom,  read  only  for  easy. 
174,  second  line  from  bottom,  read  fed  19  lb*. 


;i70  THE    DOMESTIC    SHEEP. 

PLAN  OF  SHEEP  BARN,  YARDS  AND  SHEDS, 
ADAPTED  TO  THE  SOUTH. 

Our  illustration  pictures  a  range  of  buildings  and  yards- 
well  adapted  to  the  climate  of  the  South  for  sheltering 
and  feeding  large  flocks  of  sheep.  The  main  barn,  A,  is 


drawn  to  scale  representing  it  one  hundred  and  fifty  feel 
long  and  twenty-five  wide.  The  posts  are  sixteen  feet  high, 
giving  ample  space  above  the  basement  shed  for  the  storage 
of  fodder.  At  the  end  of  this  barn,  cellars,  D,  are  con- 
structed for  the  storage  of  roots.  The  sheds,  B  B.  are 


CANADIAN   SHEEPFOLD. 


37] 


one  hundred  feet  long  and  Lave  only  eight  foot  posts, 
with  no  storage  room  above.  At  the  ends  of  these 
sheds  are  hospitals,  C  C,  with  yards  indicated  by  the 
amine  teeth,bre  ak  scab,  brand,  etc.;  2,000  is  a  usual  day's 
light  lines  in  front.  The  outside  fence,  E  E,  is  made 
very  high  and  strong  to  withstand  heavy  winds,  and 
boarded  tight.  An  evergreen  screen  should  be  planted 
on  the  outside  of  this.  The  interior  fences  are  of 
light  paling,  and  are  intended  merely  to  divide  the  flocks. 

Water  troughs  are  placed  iu  the 
line  of  interior  fences,  so  as' 
to  be  accessible  from  all  the 
yards.  There  are  four  yards 
in  the  enclosure  besides  those 
attached  to  the  hospitals,  and 
by  opening  a  twelve  foot  gate 
at  the  entrance  a  flock  may  J»e 
directed  into  any  one.  An  es- 
tablishment 'of  these  dimen- 
sions is  supposed  to  be  suffi- 
cient to  accommodate  a  flock 
of  twelve  hundred,  in  a  mild 
climate,  and  can  be  con- 
structed at  a  comparatively 
small  cost. 

CANADIAN   SHEEPFOLD. 

Our  illustration  shows  a 
convenient  and  easily  con- 
tructed  sheepfold,  suitable  for 
small  flocks.  It  is  in  use  iu 
Canada  and  the  construction 
can  readily  be  seen  by  refer- 
ence to  the  engraving.  The 
hurdles  are  of  white  pine  4x4 
and  l^xl1/^  inches.  The  rape 
which  the  sheep  fed  off  (3V-> 
acres)  kept  thirty-five  sheep 
seven  weeks,  with  a  pint  of 
oats  per  head  per  diem. 


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The  office  of  the  American  Sheep  Breeder 
is  headquarters  for  western  ranchmen  who 
purchase  rams  in  car  lots. 


Advertising  Rates  on  Application.        Sample  Copy  Free- 


AMERICAN  SHEEP  BREEDER 

W.  W.  BURGH,  Mgr. 
124  Michigan  Street,       -        -        -       CHICAGO,  ILL. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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